AMSCO 9.5 Migration and Immgiration in the 1990s and 2000s

Overview

AMSCO Topic 9.5, Migration and Immigration in the 1990s and 2000s, covers how immigration policy changed after the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, why migration from Latin America and Asia surged, and how population shifts toward the Sun Belt reshaped the economy, politics, and culture of the American South and West. This chapter sits in Period 9 (1980-present) and connects directly to a big course idea: after 1980, international migration supplied the U.S. economy with a critical labor force while the South and West gained political and cultural power.

The pattern to remember: anti-immigrant sentiment in American history rises when the foreign-born share of the population rises. Immigrants were 13-15 percent of the population before the restrictive laws of the 1920s. By the 2010s, the share again topped 13 percent, and restriction again gained a popular following (think "Build the wall!" chants in the 2016 election).

Changing Immigration Policies

The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 is the hinge of this whole chapter. It scrapped the racially based quota system from the 1920s and replaced it with preferences for two groups: people with relatives already in the U.S. and people with occupations the Department of Labor considered critical. Crucially, it opened immigration from non-European countries.

Why the Origins of Immigrants Shifted

After 1965, who came to America changed dramatically. The reasons:

• Europe had recovered from World War II, so fewer Europeans wanted to leave.
• Castro's takeover of Cuba and the war in Vietnam pushed people to flee those countries.

The numbers tell the story. Between 1970 and 2015, the share of annual immigrants coming from Europe and Canada fell from 68 percent to 14 percent. Meanwhile:

• South and East Asia: 7 percent up to 27 percent
• Mexico: 8 percent up to 27 percent
• Latin America outside Mexico: 11 percent up to 24 percent

By 2000, Hispanics were the fastest-growing segment of the population and the largest minority group in the nation at 13 percent. Asian Americans exceeded 4 percent. Immigration drove 27.8 percent of population growth in the 1990s and was a key stimulus to that decade's economic boom. Without immigration, the U.S. was on track for negative population growth by 2030.

Federal Legislation on Undocumented Immigration

Congress tried twice to address undocumented entry, and both laws fell short of stopping it.

• The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 tried to create a fair entry process but failed to stop people seeking work from entering without authorization. Critics attacked it for granting amnesty to over three million undocumented immigrants from Mexico and the Americas.
• The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996, passed under Clinton, strengthened immigration laws, restructured enforcement, and limited immigration by targeting undocumented migration. It still did little to stop the flow.

A big reason these laws underperformed: private employers kept hiring undocumented workers because they could pay them far less than legal residents.

Executive Action and DACA

When Congress gridlocks, presidents act alone. In the 21st century, the Senate and House could not agree on immigration reform, and neither the Bush nor Obama administration got a bill through Congress.

In 2012, President Obama created the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program by executive action. It protected "Dreamers" (undocumented young people brought to the U.S. as children) from deportation and let them continue their education and apply for work permits. DACA was controversial. A 2014 attempt to expand it drew lawsuits from 26 states and was partially blocked by a federal judge.

Here's a misconception-buster worth knowing for the exam: anger at Obama's immigration policies grew even though, during his presidency, the number of border guards increased, deportations increased, and the total undocumented population decreased.

Trump Immigration Policies

Donald Trump campaigned in 2016 promising to be much tougher on immigration and asylum seekers than Obama. His proposed policies included:

• Forcing Mexico to build a 2,000-mile border wall
• Requiring Mexico and Central American countries to stop migrants at their own borders
• Using the courts to end DACA
• Restricting legal immigration, including limiting "green cards" for legal residents and asylum seekers
• Preventing all immigrants from receiving welfare in their first five years

By 2019, this broad attack on immigration had discouraged the number of migrants trying to enter the U.S. Reactions split: some welcomed a pause after a period of dramatic increase in immigration, while others said the policies abandoned America's tradition as a nation welcoming of, and built by, immigrants.

Influence of the American South and West

By 2000, almost 60 percent of Americans lived in the South or West. That population shift, which started with the Sun Belt boom covered back in earlier Period 9 chapters, translated into growing economic, political, and cultural power for those regions.

Why the Sun Belt Economy Kept Booming

The Sun Belt's appeal in the 1990s and 2000s came from a business-friendly formula: small government, low taxes, weak labor unions, and low-wage economies. On top of that:

• States improved communication and transportation systems to support growth.
• Southern states had desegregated public institutions enough that large corporations no longer avoided relocating there.
• Oil powered Texas; military installations drew defense and aerospace firms to the Southwest; favorable weather boosted tourism in Southern California, Las Vegas, and Florida.

Political Power Shifts South and West

Population shifts equal political power shifts. More people in mostly conservative Sun Belt states meant more House seats and more electoral votes. Combined with Southern conservatives moving from the Democratic to the Republican Party, this produced Republican majorities in both houses of Congress for the first time in 40 years.

Two facts that make great essay evidence:

• By the 1990s, most U.S. political leadership came from the Sun Belt. Before Obama (of Illinois) won in 2008, the previous seven presidents had all come from the Sun Belt.
• The more liberal Northeast and Midwest, the most influential regions in U.S. politics since the Civil War, lost congressional representation and political influence.

Culture Flowed Both Ways

Southern and Western culture spread nationally: country and western music gained popularity everywhere, and evangelical Protestant Christianity, conservative attitudes on gender issues, and opposition to gun regulations spread beyond their home regions.

But the regions changed too. The growing Hispanic population made Mexican food, Roman Catholic Christianity, and the Spanish language more common. Americans migrating from other regions made the South more urban and cosmopolitan. In Virginia, in-migration even flipped the politics liberal, with Democrats gaining control of the state government and passing gun regulations.

American Society in 2000

The 2000 census counted 281.4 million U.S. residents, making America the third most populous nation after China and India. The fastest-growing regions remained the West and South. Where people lived: 50 percent in suburbs, 30 percent in central cities, only 20 percent in rural areas. Immigration kept making the country more ethnically diverse.

A "Graying" Population

A falling birthrate plus rising life expectancy meant the population was aging. By 2000, 35 million people were over 65, and the fastest-growing age group was 85 and over. As baby boomers aged, concerns grew about health care, prescription drugs, senior housing, and Social Security. The math behind the Social Security worry: 2.9 workers supported each beneficiary in 2010, projected to fall to 2.3 by 2035.

Changing Family Structure

The decline of the traditional family was another national concern. Families headed by a female with no husband jumped from 5.5 million in 1970 to 12.8 million in 2000. Single women headed 47.2 percent of Black families in 2000, and the same trend appeared in White and Hispanic households with children under 18. Children in these families often grew up in poverty without adequate support.

Key Terms to Know

Practice and Next Steps

Pair these notes with the Topic 9.5 Migration and Immigration course study guide for the College Board-aligned version of this material. This chapter builds on the economic shifts in AMSCO 9.4 A Changing Economy and sets up AMSCO 9.6 Challenges of the 21st Century. When you're ready to pull Period 9 together for essays, work through AMSCO 9.7 Causation in Period 9.

To test yourself, run a set of APUSH guided practice questions on Period 9, or write a practice response with instant FRQ scoring. All the AMSCO chapter notes for this unit live on the APUSH AMSCO notes page.