AP US History
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4.9 The Development of an American Culture
Verified for the 2025 AP US History exam•Last Updated on June 18, 2024
Between 1800 and 1848, the United States experienced tremendous territorial expansion, economic growth, and demographic change. During this era of transformation, a distinctive American cultural identity began to emerge. This new national culture combined uniquely American elements with European influences while incorporating diverse regional traditions. The arts, literature, philosophy, and patterns of everyday life all reflected this blending of influences as Americans sought to define their national character.
Influences on American Cultural Identity
The formation of American culture in this period came from multiple sources:
American Elements
- Democratic ideals and republican values
- Frontier experiences and westward expansion
- Growing sense of exceptionalism and destiny
- Regional diversity and distinctive local traditions
- Emerging capitalist market economy
European Influences
- Enlightenment ideas of rationality and progress
- Romantic movement's emphasis on emotion and nature
- Liberal social and political philosophies
- Artistic and literary traditions
- Immigrants bringing cultural practices from their homelands
Regional Cultural Sensibilities
- Northeast: Commercial, urban culture with emphasis on education and reform
- South: Plantation culture shaped by slavery and agricultural economy
- West: Frontier culture emphasizing individualism and opportunity
- Various immigrant communities maintaining distinct cultural identities
Immigration and Cultural Diversity
Immigration dramatically reshaped America's cultural landscape during this period:
Irish Immigration
- Primary cause: Potato famine (1845-1852) led to mass emigration
- Settlement patterns: Concentrated in urban areas, especially in the Northeast
- Economic status: Generally poor, worked as laborers and domestic servants
- Religious impact: Significantly increased Roman Catholic population
- Social reception: Faced widespread anti-Catholic discrimination
- Political influence: Became active in urban politics, typically supported Democratic Party
German Immigration
- Primary causes: Economic hardship and failed democratic revolutions of 1848
- Settlement patterns: More dispersed, with significant movement to western farms
- Economic status: Often arrived with skills and modest resources
- Cultural contributions: Strong support for education and cultural institutions
- Political attitudes: Often opposed slavery and supported public education
- Religious diversity: Included both Catholics and Protestants
Nativism and Anti-Immigrant Sentiment
- The Order of the Star-Spangled Banner (1840s): Secret anti-immigrant society
- Anti-Catholic riots in major cities
- Political impact: Many nativists supported the Whig Party
- Cultural concerns: Fear of foreign influence on American institutions
- Economic anxieties: Competition for jobs and resources
Art, Literature, and Architecture
American creative expression during this period reflected the search for national identity:
📖 American Literature
- First distinctly American literary tradition emerged
- Important authors:
- Washington Irving: Created American folk legends in "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow"
- James Fenimore Cooper: Explored frontier themes in the Leatherstocking Tales
- William Cullen Bryant: Poet who celebrated American landscapes
- Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: Created national mythology through poetry
🖼️ American Art
- The Hudson River School: First distinctly American painting movement
- Thomas Cole: Founder who depicted dramatic American landscapes
- Asher Durand: Created idealized views of American wilderness
- Themes included the sublime power of nature and tension between civilization and wilderness
- Often portrayed anxiety about westward expansion destroying pristine nature
🏛️ Architecture
- Greek Revival: Became dominant architectural style for public buildings
- Symbolized connection to classical republican values
- Examples: U.S. Capitol, many state capitols and courthouses
- Gothic Revival: Popular for churches and some homes
- Distinctive regional styles developing in different parts of the country
Transcendentalist Movement
Transcendentalism represented one of America's first homegrown philosophical movements:
Core Beliefs
- Intuition and personal experience as sources of truth
- Divinity of nature and humanity's connection to it
- Self-reliance and individualism
- Rejection of traditional religious authority
- Belief in human perfectibility and self-improvement
Key Figures
- Ralph Waldo Emerson
- Former Unitarian minister who advocated spiritual self-reliance
- Influential essays included "Nature" and "Self-Reliance"
- Emphasized the importance of individual conscience over social convention
- Henry David Thoreau
- Lived simply at Walden Pond as social experiment (1845-1847)
- Wrote "Walden" documenting his experience in nature
- Advocated civil disobedience against unjust laws
- Briefly imprisoned for refusing to pay taxes in protest of slavery and the Mexican-American War
Cultural Impact
- Influenced American literature, philosophy, and reform movements
- Promoted ideals of simplicity and authentic living
- Established individualism as central to American identity
- Provided philosophical basis for later social reform movements
Utopian Communities and Social Experiments
The period saw numerous attempts to create ideal communities separated from mainstream society:
Shaker Communities
- Founded by Mother Ann Lee, who claimed to be Christ's female incarnation
- Reached peak of about 6,000 members in 1840s
- Distinctive practices:
- Strict celibacy and separation of sexes
- Communal property ownership
- Simple, functional design aesthetic
- Ritual dancing as religious expression
- Eventually declined due to inability to attract new members
Other Communal Experiments
- New Harmony (Indiana): Robert Owen's secular socialist community
- Brook Farm (Massachusetts): Transcendentalist community emphasizing intellectual development
- Oneida Community (New York): Practiced complex marriage and communal child-rearing
- Mormon settlements: First in Ohio and Missouri, later in Utah
Common Themes
- Rejection of competitive individualism of market economy
- Experimentation with alternative family and gender arrangements
- Search for spiritual fulfillment through communal living
- Attempts to create more egalitarian social structures
These utopian experiments, while often short-lived, reflected both discontent with aspects of mainstream American society and the period's belief in human perfectibility and social progress.
The period from 1800 to 1848 saw Americans actively constructing their cultural identity through literature, art, philosophy, and social experiments. While drawing on European traditions and influences, they increasingly sought to develop distinctive American forms of expression that reflected their democratic values, diverse population, and unique landscape. This emerging national culture was neither uniform nor static but rather a dynamic blend of diverse elements that both unified Americans and highlighted their differences.
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Key Terms to Review (36)
Asher Durand: Asher Durand was a prominent American painter and engraver, known for his role in the Hudson River School movement during the 19th century. His artwork focused on landscapes that celebrated the beauty of the American wilderness, reflecting the growing appreciation for nature and the idea of Manifest Destiny in American culture.
Christ's Second Coming: Christ's Second Coming refers to the anticipated return of Jesus Christ to Earth, as prophesied in Christian eschatology. This event is believed to bring about the final judgment of humanity and the establishment of God's kingdom. It has significant implications for religious beliefs, cultural practices, and societal values throughout history.
Civil Disobedience: Civil disobedience is the active, nonviolent refusal to obey certain laws or governmental demands as a form of protest. This practice is often rooted in moral or ethical beliefs and aims to bring attention to social injustices and promote change. The concept plays a significant role in shaping movements for social justice and reform within American culture, encouraging individuals to challenge unfair systems peacefully.
Democratic Party: The Democratic Party is one of the two major political parties in the United States, founded in the early 19th century. It has evolved significantly over time, advocating for issues such as individual rights, social justice, and a more active role of government in the economy. The party's development has been influenced by key historical events and shifts in public sentiment, especially during periods of expanding democracy, cultural transformation, and major conflicts over civil rights and social issues.
Democracy: Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people, who exercise that power directly or through elected representatives. This concept became fundamental to American identity and governance during the revolutionary era and significantly evolved in subsequent periods, reflecting changing societal values and political ideologies.
Enlightenment Ideals: Enlightenment Ideals refer to the philosophical principles that emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. These ideas encouraged people to think critically about government, society, and human rights, laying the groundwork for democratic governance and social progress. The impact of Enlightenment Ideals can be seen in the development of an American culture that values liberty, equality, and the pursuit of happiness.
German Immigrants: German immigrants were individuals from Germany who migrated to the United States, especially during the 19th and early 20th centuries, seeking better economic opportunities and escaping political unrest. Their arrival significantly influenced various aspects of American society, including the economy, culture, and demographics during times of industrial growth and cultural transformation.
Henry David Thoreau: Henry David Thoreau was an American essayist, poet, and philosopher best known for his book 'Walden,' which reflects on simple living in natural surroundings and his views on individuality, society, and government. Thoreau's work is a significant part of the transcendentalist movement, which emphasizes the importance of nature and self-reliance as foundational elements of American culture.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was an influential American poet and educator, best known for his works that celebrated American themes and culture during the 19th century. His poetry often incorporated historical events and folklore, reflecting a growing national identity that emerged as America sought to define itself in contrast to European traditions.
Hudson River School: The Hudson River School was a mid-19th century American art movement known for its landscape paintings that celebrated the natural beauty of the American wilderness, particularly in the Hudson River Valley. This movement is significant as it reflects the growing sense of American nationalism and a desire to establish a distinct cultural identity separate from Europe, aligning with broader themes of romanticism and transcendentalism in American culture.
Industry: Industry refers to the production of goods or services within an economy, typically involving the use of machinery and labor to create products on a large scale. This concept is key in understanding how societies evolve, particularly as they shift from agrarian economies to industrialized ones, which can lead to significant cultural, social, and economic changes.
Irish Immigrants: Irish immigrants were individuals who emigrated from Ireland to the United States, particularly during the mid-19th century, often fleeing famine, economic hardship, and political unrest. Their arrival significantly influenced American society, economy, and culture, marking a crucial period of immigration that shaped the nation’s identity.
James Fenimore Cooper: James Fenimore Cooper was an influential American novelist and social critic, best known for his historical novels set in the early American frontier. He is often credited with popularizing the genre of the American novel, as his works reflect the emerging American identity and cultural values during the early 19th century.
Louisiana Purchase: The Louisiana Purchase was a significant land acquisition made by the United States from France in 1803, where the U.S. acquired approximately 827,000 square miles of territory west of the Mississippi River for $15 million. This purchase doubled the size of the United States and played a crucial role in its westward expansion and development.
Mexican-American War: The Mexican-American War was a conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848, primarily over territorial disputes following the U.S. annexation of Texas. This war resulted in significant land gains for the United States, including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming.
Mother Ann Lee: Mother Ann Lee was the founder of the Shaker movement in the United States, known for her spiritual leadership and the establishment of communal living practices based on her interpretations of Christianity. She emphasized celibacy, equality, and simplicity, shaping a unique religious community that played a role in the broader development of an American culture characterized by reform movements and communal experimentation.
Nativists: Nativists are individuals or groups that advocate for the interests of native-born inhabitants over those of immigrants, often expressing hostility towards new arrivals. This mindset typically arises during periods of significant immigration and economic change, leading to a push for policies that prioritize the rights and privileges of established residents. Nativism can manifest through political movements, social sentiments, and cultural attitudes that seek to maintain a perceived cultural or racial purity against foreign influences.
Plantation System: The Plantation System refers to an agricultural system that relies on large-scale farming operations where cash crops, such as tobacco, sugar, and cotton, are cultivated primarily through the labor of enslaved people. This system played a crucial role in shaping the economic, social, and cultural landscapes of regions in the Americas, particularly in the South, and influenced societal structures and relations leading up to and during the Reconstruction era.
Potato Crop Failures: Potato crop failures refer to significant reductions in potato yields caused by disease, particularly the late blight fungus, which had devastating effects in the mid-19th century. These failures were crucial in shaping demographic and social changes, particularly leading to large-scale migration and shifts in cultural dynamics in America as people sought new opportunities after devastating losses.
Public education: Public education refers to a system of free and publicly funded schooling provided by the government to all children, aimed at ensuring access to education for every citizen. This system emerged in the 19th century as part of a broader movement to promote literacy, civic responsibility, and social mobility among the American populace. It also played a crucial role in shaping national identity and bridging cultural divides in a rapidly growing society.
Ralph Waldo Emerson: Ralph Waldo Emerson was a 19th-century American essayist, lecturer, and philosopher who is best known for leading the transcendentalist movement, which emphasized individualism, nature, and the inherent goodness of people. His work encouraged a new American cultural identity that focused on self-reliance and personal spirituality, challenging traditional religious and social norms.
Robert Mills: Robert Mills was a prominent American architect in the 19th century known for his neoclassical designs and contributions to the development of public architecture in the United States. His work symbolizes the emergence of a distinctly American architectural identity during a time when the nation was shaping its culture and values.
Roman Catholic Religion: The Roman Catholic Religion is a branch of Christianity led by the Pope and characterized by its beliefs in the authority of the Church, sacraments, and traditions. This faith played a vital role in shaping cultural, social, and political landscapes, influencing the development of American culture through immigration, religious practices, and conflicts.
Romanticism: Romanticism was a cultural and artistic movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature over reason and classical ideals. This movement significantly influenced various aspects of society, including literature, art, and music, as it sought to express the beauty of the natural world and the depth of human experience.
Self-Reliance: Self-Reliance is the concept of individuals relying on their own abilities, judgment, and resources to achieve personal growth and independence. This idea promotes a strong sense of individualism and self-sufficiency, resonating with the broader cultural shift in America during the 19th century as people sought to define their identities apart from traditional authorities and societal norms.
Shakers: The Shakers were a religious sect founded in the 18th century in England and later established in America, known for their communal living, celibacy, and distinctive craftsmanship. They played a significant role in shaping American culture through their innovative approaches to agriculture, design, and social reform, emphasizing simplicity and equality.
Slavery: Slavery is a system in which individuals are owned by others, deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labor or services. In the context of American history, slavery primarily refers to the institution where African Americans were forcibly brought to work on plantations and in various other sectors, significantly impacting social, economic, and political structures.
Supreme Order of the Star Spangled Banner: The Supreme Order of the Star Spangled Banner was a nativist organization founded in 1850 that aimed to promote American nationalism and protect American interests against foreign influence, particularly from immigrants. This group arose during a period of growing tension around immigration and national identity, reflecting the broader anxieties of the time regarding cultural integration and the preservation of a distinct American character.
Thomas Cole: Thomas Cole was an American painter and the founder of the Hudson River School, which emphasized the beauty of the American landscape through romanticism and realism. His work not only celebrated nature but also conveyed deeper themes about humanity's relationship with the environment, making significant contributions to the development of an American cultural identity in the 19th century.
Thomas Ustick Walter: Thomas Ustick Walter was an American architect, most notable for his design of the dome of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. His work represented the growing American cultural identity during the mid-19th century, showcasing the ambition and progress of the nation as it was developing its own architectural style distinct from European influences.
Transcendentalism: Transcendentalism is a philosophical and literary movement that emerged in the early 19th century, emphasizing individual intuition, the inherent goodness of people, and a deep connection to nature. It promoted self-reliance and questioned societal norms, encouraging individuals to seek truth through personal experience rather than established doctrines. This movement significantly influenced cultural development and social reforms during its time.
Urbanization: Urbanization is the process by which an increasing percentage of a population comes to live in urban areas, resulting in the growth and expansion of cities. This phenomenon has been driven by various factors, including economic opportunities, technological advancements, and social changes, significantly impacting societal structures and cultural dynamics.
Walden: Or Life in the Woods: Walden: Or Life in the Woods is a reflective essay by Henry David Thoreau, published in 1854, that details his experiment in simple living in natural surroundings. This work is a cornerstone of American transcendentalism and emphasizes the importance of self-reliance, nature, and individualism in shaping an American culture that values personal experience and a connection to the environment.
Washington Irving: Washington Irving was an influential American author, essayist, and diplomat, often regarded as the first American writer to achieve international fame. His works, such as 'Rip Van Winkle' and 'The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,' contributed significantly to the development of an American literary identity during the early 19th century, showcasing themes of American folklore and character.
Whig Party: The Whig Party was a political party in the United States active during the mid-19th century, formed in opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party. The Whigs promoted modernization, economic protectionism, and a strong role for Congress, reflecting the changing dynamics of American politics and society during this period.
William Cullen Bryant: William Cullen Bryant was an influential American poet, journalist, and advocate for nature conservation, widely recognized as a key figure in the development of American literature during the 19th century. His works often emphasized themes of nature and morality, reflecting the emerging American identity and contributing to the broader cultural movement known as Romanticism.