The final historical thinking skill of causation involves understanding the cause-and-effect relationships that have occurred throughout history. This skill involves identifying short-term and long-term causes and of historical events as well as evaluating the significance of multiple causes of historical events. In order to establish cause-and-effect, it is important to understand the context of a situation.
🎥 Watch: AP US History - Recap of Period 1 for Quizzes. Potential Multiple Choice Questions
Causation Behind Early Transatlantic Voyages
Big Idea 1: Native Population Settlement and Advancement
💡 How the College Board frames it: "As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments."
The indigenous populations of North America, throughout their migration and settlement journey across the vast and diverse landscape, created unique and intricate societies. This was achieved through their ability to adapt to and modify their surroundings to fit their needs and cultural beliefs. The result was the formation of diverse and rich cultural traditions, each shaped by the specific physical and environmental characteristics of the region in which they settled.
It is important to note that these societies were not static but rather continued to evolve and grow, developing new technologies, trade networks, and political structures. The adaptation to their environment and the integration of new ideas and practices, allowed these societies to thrive and become highly sophisticated. Through their connection with the natural world and their ability to use the resources available to them, they built complex societies that reflected the beauty, resilience and adaptability of the human spirit.
Strategies
The implementation of innovative strategies in agriculture, resource utilization, and social organization allowed them to create self-sufficient communities that were well adapted to their specific environments.
For example, many native societies developed sophisticated agricultural practices that allowed them to cultivate crops and produce food in even the harshest of environments. They also utilized the resources available to them in unique and sustainable ways, such as fishing, hunting, and gathering. The result was the formation of well-balanced ecosystems that provided for their communities and ensured their survival.
Additionally, the social structures of these societies also evolved to reflect their environment and the resources available to them. They developed complex systems of governance, trade, and cooperation that allowed them to work together to meet their needs and solve common problems.
Big Idea 2: Transatlantic Interactions Between Europe, Africa, and the Americas
💡 How the College Board frames it: "Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
European Expansion into the Americas: Competition
The colonization of the Western Hemisphere by European powers was a significant event in world history that brought about substantial social, religious, political, and economic changes within the European nations themselves.
The process of establishing colonies and trading posts in the New World created competition among European powers, which led to an intensification of rivalries between countries. The competition was not only limited to geographical expansion but also included the spread of religion, commerce, and ideas. This competition resulted in the emergence of new institutions, practices, and beliefs in Europe and also had far-reaching impacts on the indigenous populations of the Americas.
The pursuit of wealth, power, and influence in the New World necessitated new methods of governance and the development of new forms of economic activity, such as mercantilism, which involved the regulation of commerce for the benefit of the state. This in turn impacted the development of the modern nation-state system and the emergence of the capitalist economy.
Moreover, the religious competition between European powers, particularly between Catholics and Protestants, had a profound effect on the development of these religions in Europe. The colonization of the New World also led to the establishment of new religious orders and the spread of Christianity, which had significant impacts on the indigenous populations.
The Columbian Exchange
The Columbian Exchange, the transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, was a major turning point in world history. It had a profound impact on the development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere, leading to significant demographic, economic, and social changes.
The arrival of new diseases, such as smallpox, had a devastating impact on the indigenous populations of the Americas. The Spanish Empire's exploitation of the New World's resources, including the forced labor of indigenous peoples, led to significant changes in the local economies and social structures. The influx of wealth from the New World allowed the Spanish Empire to become one of the dominant economic and military powers of the 16th and 17th centuries.
The Spanish Empire's control over large parts of the Western Hemisphere resulted in the creation of a complex network of trade and commerce, which connected the New World with Europe and Africa. This facilitated the transfer of goods, animals, plants, and people, leading to the emergence of new crops, such as maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which had a profound impact on the diets and agriculture of Europe and the Americas.
Cultural Differences
The interactions between Europeans and Native Americans in the Americas were marked by the assertion of vastly different worldviews. These divergent perspectives centered around key issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power.
Religion was a major point of contention between Europeans and Native Americans. Europeans sought to convert the indigenous populations to Christianity, while Native Americans maintained their traditional spiritual beliefs and practices. This resulted in the suppression of Native American spirituality and the imposition of European religious norms and values.
The role of gender and the definition of family were also sources of tension between the two groups. Native American societies often had fluid gender roles and fluid familial structures, which were in stark contrast to the more rigid and hierarchical European gender roles and family structures.
Land use and ownership were also significant points of contention between Europeans and Native Americans. Europeans viewed land as a commodity to be owned and exploited, while Native Americans viewed land as a communal resource to be shared and protected. This resulted in the displacement of indigenous populations and the destruction of their traditional ways of life.
Finally, the issue of power was central to the interactions between Europeans and Native Americans. Europeans viewed the indigenous populations as inferior and sought to exert control over them, while Native Americans resisted European domination and sought to maintain their independence and sovereignty.
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| transatlantic voyages | Ocean voyages across the Atlantic Ocean connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas from the late 15th century onward. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What were the main effects of Columbus discovering America?
Columbus’s voyages set off the Columbian Exchange and reshaped the Atlantic World. Big effects: massive demographic collapse of Native populations from Eurasian diseases (smallpox), which weakened societies and helped Spanish conquest; transfer of New World crops (maize, potatoes) that boosted Old World populations and economies; flow of silver (e.g., Potosí) that fueled global trade and Spanish empire-building; creation of colonial institutions (encomienda, Spanish missions) and racial mixing (mestizaje); and the rise of plantation economies that increased demand for African labor and accelerated the Atlantic slave trade. Politically, European rivalry (Treaty of Tordesillas) and imperial expansion followed. For AP exams, link these causes and effects in short answers/essays (LO G) and use specific evidence—disease, maize diffusion, encomienda, sugar plantations, and African slavery—to support your argument. Review Topic 1.7 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Why did Europeans start exploring across the Atlantic Ocean in the first place?
Europeans began crossing the Atlantic mainly for economic, political, religious, and technological reasons. After 1450 states like Spain and Portugal wanted direct access to Asian spices and gold (avoiding Ottoman-controlled land routes), so they funded voyages to find new trade routes. Competition between monarchies (plus the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas) pushed exploration and colonial claims. Missionary goals—spreading Christianity—and merchants’ desire for new markets and resources also mattered. Improved navigation (caravels, better maps, the compass) and growing Atlantic maritime knowledge made long voyages possible. Those voyages created the Atlantic World and kicked off the Columbian Exchange, reshaping demography, economy, and labor systems (including sugar plantations and the Atlantic slave trade later). For AP exam focus: Learning Objective G asks you to explain effects of these voyages (1491–1607), so link causes to outcomes like demographic collapse, new crops, and imperial systems. For a quick review see the Topic 1.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How did the Columbian Exchange actually work and what got traded?
The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between the Old World (Europe, Africa, Asia) and the New World after 1492, driven by transatlantic voyages and colonization. Europeans brought horses, cattle, pigs, wheat, sugarcane, and coffee plus new technologies and Christianity to the Americas; they also transported enslaved Africans (labor systems like sugar plantations), and pathogens such as smallpox. From the Americas came maize, potatoes, tomatoes, cacao, tobacco, and syphilis (debated)—crops that reshaped diets, economies, and population growth in Europe, Africa, and Asia. These exchanges caused demographic collapse among many Native peoples (smallpox), economic shifts (silver, sugar, plantation slavery), and cultural mixing (mestizaje). For AP exam prep, link this to KC-1.2 (Columbian Exchange effects) and practice explaining causation and consequences (see the Topic 1.7 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86). For extra practice problems, try https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history.
What's the difference between how Native Americans and Europeans viewed land ownership?
Native Americans and Europeans had fundamentally different worldviews about land. Many Native societies saw land as a shared resource tied to community survival, spiritual life, and specific uses (hunting, farming, seasonal camps). Rights usually meant use and stewardship, not exclusive, permanent ownership. Europeans treated land as private property—alienable, buyable, fenced, and tied to legal title and individual wealth. That clash led to misunderstandings in treaties, colonial land grabs, and competing land-use systems (European agriculture/plantations vs. Indigenous mixed use), which fueled conflict and long-term dispossession. On the AP exam, this is a common comparison/causation point (Topic 1.7 & KC-1.2.III). For a quick review, see the Topic 1.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86). For extra practice, try the AP question sets at Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Can someone explain the Spanish Empire in simple terms - like what did they actually control?
Think of the Spanish Empire in Period 1 like a giant transatlantic system centered on wealth, conversion, and control. By 1600 Spain claimed large zones: most of the Caribbean, much of Mexico (Aztec lands), Central America, much of South America (including Potosí silver region), and parts of what’s now the southeastern and southwestern North America. They ran plantations (sugar), mines (silver), and a network of missions and encomienda labor systems that forced Indigenous labor and later imported African slaves. Spanish rule reshaped societies through mestizaje (racial mixing), Catholic missions, and the Columbian Exchange (disease-caused demographic collapse of Native peoples, maize diffusion, new trade). For APUSH, focus on causes/effects: economic motives (silver, sugar), religious motives (missions), and demographic/economic consequences (smallpox, encomienda). Want a concise CED-aligned review? Check the Topic 1.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
I'm confused about how European exploration changed European societies too - wasn't it just about finding new lands?
You're right that exploration wasn't just about land—it reshaped Europe in lots of ways. Transatlantic voyages created the Columbian Exchange (new crops like maize and potatoes raised European diets and population), new sources of precious metals (silver from Potosí fueled European commerce and early capitalism), and commercial changes (Atlantic trade networks, sugar/plantation economies, and the start of large-scale African slave trade). Politically, rivalry over colonies and trade led to treaties (e.g., Tordesillas) and intensified state competition. Religiously and culturally, missions and contact produced debates about treatment of Indigenous peoples and ideas like mestizaje influenced views on race. For AP exam purposes this ties directly to LO-G (explain effects of transatlantic voyages) and KC-1.2.I/II. If you want a focused review on causation in Period 1, check the Topic 1.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86) and practice questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What were the long-term consequences of contact between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans?
Contact set off massive, long-term changes across demography, economy, culture, and environment. Disease (smallpox) caused catastrophic Native American population collapse, which reshaped labor needs and made Europeans turn to African slave labor—fueling the Atlantic slave trade and plantation economies (sugar, tobacco). The Columbian Exchange moved crops (maize, potatoes) and animals that transformed diets, population growth, and land use on both sides of the Atlantic. Spanish imperial institutions (encomienda, missions) plus mestizaje produced new racial hierarchies and mixed populations; European competition and resource extraction (e.g., Potosí silver) tied the Americas into a global Atlantic World and changed European politics and economies. Clash of worldviews over land, religion, gender, and power led to persistent conflict and cultural change. For AP exam practice, focus on causation and contextualization (use these specifics in SAQs/DBQs/LEQs). See the Topic 1.7 study guide for a concise review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about the effects of transatlantic voyages?
Start with a clear thesis answering “effects” (political, demographic, economic, cultural) and a line of reasoning. Contextualize briefly: Europeans’ 15th-century maritime tech + Treaty of Tordesillas opened Atlantic routes. Use at least four documents to support claims, describe (not just quote) each, and for two documents explain POV/purpose/audience (sourcing). Bring in one specific outside fact—e.g., smallpox-driven demographic collapse of the Taino, maize diffusion increasing Native diets, the encomienda system, or early African slave trade feeding sugar plantations—to earn the outside-evidence point. Organize body paragraphs by effect (demographic collapse & disease; Columbian Exchange/ecological & economic change; labor systems & racial caste/mestizaje; Atlantic World political shifts). To show complexity, explain tradeoffs or multiple causes (ecological + social + economic) and link short-term and long-term effects. For a quick review, check the Topic 1.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Did Native American societies really change that much before Europeans arrived?
Short answer: yes—Native American societies changed a lot before Europeans arrived, but the changes were regionally different and happened over centuries. Why it matters: as groups migrated across North America they adapted to diverse environments, developing agriculture (notably maize diffusion), new technologies, and complex social and political systems—from Mississippian chiefdoms with large towns and mound-building to Pueblo irrigation societies in the Southwest and mobile hunter-gatherer bands on the Plains (KC-1.1 and KC-1.1.I). These shifts altered settlement patterns, trade networks, gender roles, and land use long before 1492. That continuity-plus-change perspective is exactly the kind of causation/contextualization AP asks you to explain on short answers, DBQs, and LEQs. Want to review this topic with AP-aligned notes and examples? Check the Topic 1.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history) to reinforce causes and effects.
Why did European expansion cause so much competition between European countries?
European expansion sparked intense competition because new overseas lands suddenly meant huge economic, political, and religious stakes. Nations wanted access to profitable goods (sugar, silver, spices), control of trade routes, and new markets for manufactures—so states raced to claim colonies, ports, and resources. Religious rivalry (Catholic vs. Protestant) and national prestige made stakes even higher. Legal tools like the Treaty of Tordesillas show how states tried to divide the Atlantic world, but ambiguous claims and overlapping voyages kept conflicts alive. The Columbian Exchange and plantations increased demand for labor and capital, driving further competition (see CED keywords like Columbian Exchange, sugar plantations, Potosí silver mine). On the AP exam you’ll often explain these causal links (LO G—effects of transatlantic voyages); practice tying economic motives, religion/power, and legal agreements to specific outcomes. For a focused review, check the Topic 1.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86) and use Fiveable’s practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history) to drill causation questions.
What caused the massive population decline among Native Americans after 1491?
The massive Native American population decline after 1491 was mainly due to disease introduced by Europeans—especially smallpox—which caused the largest share of the “demographic collapse.” The Columbian Exchange brought illnesses for which Indigenous peoples had no immunity. Other important causes: violent conflict and forced labor under systems like the encomienda, which increased mortality; ecological disruption (loss of crops, herd animals) that led to famine; and displacement from traditional lands that broke food systems and social networks. Together these factors interacted—disease weakened communities, making them more vulnerable to exploitation and displacement—so causation is multi-factor but disease was primary. This fits AP Topic 1.7 (CED keywords: Columbian Exchange, smallpox epidemics, encomienda system, demographic collapse). For quick review, check the Topic 1.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How were Native American gender roles different from European ones and why did this matter?
Native societies often had gender roles that were more flexible and complementary than European ones. Many Indigenous groups practiced matrilineal descent or gave women control over land, agriculture, and clan decisions; men often handled hunting and warfare but political power could be shared or balanced by women’s kin networks. Europeans, by contrast, brought rigid patriarchal norms tied to private property, nuclear households, and male-dominated political authority. Why it mattered: divergent gender systems shaped interactions after 1491—alliances, trade, and diplomacy relied on Native kinship patterns Europeans didn’t understand, which led to miscommunication and exploitation. European demands for land, labor, and conversion undermined Indigenous social structures (a key part of KC-1.2.III). Those differences affected colonization outcomes, mission strategies, and resistance. For AP exam prep, note how “gender roles, family, land use, and power” show conflicting worldviews in Topic 1.7 (see Fiveable’s Topic 1.7 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86). For more practice, try the 1000+ questions at https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history.
I missed class - what exactly happened between 1491 and 1607 that was so important?
Between 1491 and 1607, transatlantic voyages reshaped the Atlantic World and set up the causes and effects you need for APUSH Topic 1.7. Europeans’ arrival triggered the Columbian Exchange: new crops (maize, potatoes) spread and boosted populations in Europe and Africa; Old World diseases (smallpox) caused catastrophic demographic collapse among Native Americans. Spain built an empire (Treaty of Tordesillas, encomienda system, missions) that created labor systems, racial mixing (mestizaje), and harsh native exploitation—sparking debates like Bartolomé de las Casas’ criticism. The demand for sugar and silver (Potosí) and labor shortages helped start the African slave trade. Conflicting worldviews over land, religion, and gender led to lasting cultural and political change. For the exam: Unit 1 is 4–6% of the test and may show up on SAQ/LEQ/DBQ—focus on causation and specific evidence. Review the Topic 1.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What were the economic effects of the Columbian Exchange on both sides of the Atlantic?
The Columbian Exchange reshaped economies on both sides of the Atlantic. From the Americas to Europe/Africa: New staple crops (maize, potatoes, cassava) raised food calories, boosted population growth, and supported urbanization and labor specialization in Europe. Valuable New World commodities (silver from Potosí, tobacco, sugar) fueled commercial capitalism and helped finance global trade—silver especially linked Eurasian markets and contributed to 16th–17th century inflation (the Price Revolution). From Europe/Africa to the Americas: Old World animals (horses, pigs, cattle) transformed Native American agriculture and transport; crops like sugar and the rise of plantation agriculture created huge demand for labor, triggering the expansion of the African slave trade and new labor systems (encomienda → African slavery). Economically this produced the Atlantic World: integrated markets, colonial mercantilist policies, and wealth for European empires while causing demographic collapse and labor shortages in indigenous populations. For AP review, connect these effects to KC-1.2 and Learning Objective G (see the Topic 1.7 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86) and practice more with Fiveable’s AP question bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Why did Europeans and Native Americans have such different worldviews about religion and family?
They had different worldviews because their social foundations and environments shaped what mattered to them. Many Native American societies practiced animistic or polytheistic religions tied to land, seasons, and community rites; spiritual authority was often communal and integrated with kinship, hunting/farming, and gender-balanced roles. Europeans’ Christianity was monotheistic, church-centered, and tied to written scripture and hierarchical clergy; family was increasingly a private, patriarchal unit linked to property, inheritance, and individual salvation. Those differences mattered in encounters: Europeans saw land as private property to be owned and converted; many Native groups saw land as a shared resource and spiritual commons. These contrasting ideas explain conflicts over missionizing, gender roles, and land use after 1492 (KC-1.2.III). For AP study, you’ll want to connect these worldview differences to concrete evidence (missions, encomienda, kinship systems) on short-answer or DBQ tasks—see the Topic 1.7 study guide for focused prep (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-1/causation-period-1/study-guide/DAGaYjTWpcEa9xMRdb86). For extra practice, try Fiveable’s AP practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).