The 1920s represented more than just economic prosperity and technological innovation—it was also a decade of significant cultural battles and social tension. As America became increasingly urban and diverse, traditional and modern values clashed over issues of religion, immigration, race, gender roles, and personal freedom. These conflicts revealed deeper questions about American identity as the nation struggled to reconcile rapid social change with established traditions.
Immigration and Urbanization
The 1920s marked the first time most Americans lived in cities instead of rural areas. This shift to urban living happened alongside growing fears about immigrants, especially those from Southern and Eastern Europe. Many native-born Americans worried that newcomers threatened American culture and jobs, leading to strict new immigration laws.
The First Red Scare and Immigration Restriction:
- After the Russian Revolution, fear of communism led to the "Palmer Raids" where thousands of suspected radicals were arrested
- The Emergency Quota Act (1921) and National Origins Act (1924) drastically limited immigration, particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe
- These laws reflected nativist desires to keep America primarily Northern European in ancestry
- The Sacco and Vanzetti case showed anti-immigrant feelings, as two Italian anarchists were executed despite weak evidence
Urban Migration and Its Effects:
- African Americans moved from the rural South to Northern cities in the Great Migration
- Rural white Americans also relocated to urban centers seeking economic opportunities
- Cities became more crowded and diverse, creating both vibrant cultural exchange and social tensions
- Urban neighborhoods often developed distinct ethnic and racial characters
| Migration Pattern | Key Impacts | Cultural Expressions |
|---|---|---|
| Great Migration (African Americans from South to North) | Created large Black communities in Northern cities like Chicago, Detroit, and New York | Harlem Renaissance, jazz, blues |
| Rural to urban migration | Contributed to urban growth and housing shortages | Country music, regional literature |
| Restricted European immigration | Slowed growth of ethnic communities, particularly from Southern/Eastern Europe | Emphasis on cultural preservation within existing communities |
| Mexican migration to Southwest | Expanded Hispanic communities in Texas, California, and other border states | Mexican-American art, music, and literature |
The Rise of New Cultural Expressions
As people moved to cities, they brought their cultural traditions with them, creating new art forms that expressed their experiences. These new cultural movements often celebrated identities that mainstream America had previously ignored or rejected. For many groups, art became a way to assert pride in their heritage while also claiming their place as Americans.
The Harlem Renaissance:
- African American migration to urban centers sparked a cultural flowering, particularly in New York's Harlem neighborhood
- Writers like Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Claude McKay explored Black identity and experience
- Musicians such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and Bessie Smith pioneered jazz and blues styles
- Visual artists including Aaron Douglas created distinctive styles incorporating African influences
Regional and Ethnic Cultural Movements:
- Southern writers explored regional themes and dialect
- Mexican-American communities in the Southwest maintained and adapted traditional cultural practices
- Native American artists began receiving recognition for traditional art forms
- Immigrant communities preserved cultural traditions while adapting to American life
Gender Roles and Modern Womanhood
Women's lives changed dramatically in the 1920s after gaining the right to vote through the 19th Amendment. Many young women, especially in cities, embraced new freedoms that shocked older generations. These changes in women's behavior and appearance symbolized broader shifts in American society.
The New Woman and Cultural Controversy:
- The "flapper" image—with bobbed hair, shorter skirts, makeup, and public smoking—symbolized the modern woman
- Dating customs changed, with more unsupervised courtship becoming common
- Women increasingly worked outside the home and attended college
- These changes provoked criticism from traditionalists who feared the breakdown of the family
Women's Rights After Suffrage:
- Alice Paul and the National Woman's Party proposed the Equal Rights Amendment in 1923
- Other women's organizations focused on social welfare legislation and maternal health
- Women entered politics, though in limited numbers compared to men
Religion, Science, and Education
The 1920s saw heated debates about evolution, religion, and education. Many religious Americans felt that modern science threatened traditional beliefs. These conflicts often divided along urban-rural lines, with cities generally embracing modern ideas while rural areas defended traditional religious values.
The Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy:
- Religious communities divided over how to respond to scientific developments
- Fundamentalists defended literal interpretation of the Bible against modern scientific theories
- Modernists sought to reconcile religious faith with scientific knowledge
- The Scopes "Monkey Trial" (1925) in Tennessee became a symbol of this clash when teacher John Scopes was prosecuted for teaching evolution
Cultural Backlash and Moral Crusades
Not everyone welcomed the changes of the 1920s. Many Americans, especially in rural areas, organized to defend traditional values against what they saw as dangerous modern influences. These traditionalists used both political action and social pressure to resist changing norms.
Prohibition and Its Consequences:
- The ban on alcohol was supported primarily by rural, Protestant Americans concerned about urban vice
- Prohibition was widely ignored in cities, where speakeasies and bootlegging flourished
- The law led to the growth of organized crime under figures like Al Capone
- Prohibition showed how difficult it was to enforce moral rules in a diverse society
The Second Ku Klux Klan:
- The KKK grew to 4-5 million members nationwide during the 1920s
- The group targeted not only African Americans but also Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and those violating traditional moral codes
- The Klan presented itself as defending "100% Americanism" and traditional Protestant values
- Its influence declined after 1925 due to leadership scandals
Competing Visions of America
The 1920s featured two very different visions of what America should be. Traditionalists wanted to preserve older cultural values and keep America primarily rural, Protestant, and Northern European in heritage. Modernists embraced diversity, new technologies, and changing social customs. These competing views clashed in politics, education, and everyday life.
| Issue | Traditional View | Modern View |
|---|---|---|
| Immigration | Restrict to preserve Anglo-Saxon heritage | Welcome diversity and cultural contributions |
| Gender Roles | Women primarily as homemakers | Women having career and personal freedom |
| Race Relations | Racial hierarchy and segregation | Growing push for equality and cultural recognition |
| Religion | Biblical literalism, traditional morality | Adapting faith to modern science and changing society |
| Urban vs. Rural | Rural life as "real America" | Embracing urban diversity and cosmopolitanism |
| Entertainment | Regulated for moral content | Artistic freedom and new forms of expression |
Legacy of 1920s Cultural Conflicts
The cultural battles of the 1920s set patterns that continue to shape American society today. The tensions between traditional and modern viewpoints didn't disappear with the end of the decade. Instead, these debates about immigration, race, gender, religion, and personal freedom have remained central to American politics and culture throughout our history.
The 1920s showed both America's ability to change and adapt and the strong resistance that often accompanies social transformation. For many groups previously excluded from full participation in American life, the decade represented important steps toward greater inclusion. At the same time, the backlash against these changes demonstrated the powerful appeal of traditional values for many Americans.
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| ethnic groups | Communities of people who share a common cultural heritage, ancestry, or national origin. |
| ethnic identities | The cultural, social, and personal identities associated with a particular ethnic or national group, including shared traditions, heritage, and values. |
| gender roles | Socially defined expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female in a particular society. |
| Harlem Renaissance | A cultural and intellectual movement in the 1920s centered in Harlem, New York, where African American artists, writers, and musicians created new forms of art and literature expressing Black identity and experience. |
| immigration quotas | Legal limits on the number of immigrants allowed to enter a country, often based on national origin or ethnicity. |
| internal migration | The movement of people within the United States from one region or area to another. |
| international migration | The movement of people from one country to another, often in search of economic opportunity or to escape difficult conditions. |
| modernism | A cultural and artistic movement that rejected traditional forms and values, embracing new experimental styles in art, literature, and thought. |
| nativism | A political movement that favors native-born citizens over immigrants and seeks to restrict immigration and immigrant rights. |
| popular culture | Forms of entertainment, art, and cultural expression that appeal to and are created by the general public, including music, literature, film, and fashion. |
| regional identities | The cultural and social characteristics that distinguish different geographic regions and their populations. |
| urban centers | Cities and metropolitan areas that serve as centers of economic, social, and cultural activity. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What were the main cultural controversies in the 1920s?
The 1920s had several big cultural controversies that show up a lot on AP questions: changing gender roles (flappers, the “New Woman,” more women working/voting), Prohibition and bootlegging (conflict over morality and law), modernism vs. traditionalism (Scopes Trial: evolution vs. religion), race and migration (Great Migration, Harlem Renaissance, Marcus Garvey, NAACP vs. resurgence of the KKK), and nativism/immigration restriction (Sacco and Vanzetti, Emergency Quota Act 1921 and Immigration Act of 1924). Also the Red Scare/Palmer Raids heightened fears of radicals. For the AP exam you should link these developments to migration, popular culture, and politics, provide specific evidence and context, and practice DBQ/LEQ skills (thesis, sourcing, contextualization). Review Topic 7.8 on Fiveable (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH; unit overview: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7) and drill practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Why did so many Americans move to cities by 1920?
By 1920 most Americans lived in cities because cities offered faster, more diverse economic opportunities than rural areas. Industrial growth created factory, clerical, and service jobs that drew international immigrants, internal migrants from the South (including the Great Migration of Black Americans), and rural women seeking paid work. Urban areas also had better transportation, electricity, and mass entertainment (jazz, dance halls) that shaped the Jazz Age and new cultural roles like “flappers.” Push factors—mechanized farms, declining rural jobs, and racial violence—plus pull factors—higher wages, community networks, and cultural scenes—combined to make cities the dominant American setting by 1920 (CED KC-7.1.I.B; keywords: urbanization, Great Migration, Jazz Age). For AP review, connect this to Topic 7.8’s focus on migration’s cultural effects (Harlem Renaissance) and practice applying these causes/effects on short-answer or DBQ prompts (see the Topic 7.8 study guide on Fiveable: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH and practice problems: https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What is the Harlem Renaissance and why did it happen?
The Harlem Renaissance was a 1920s cultural movement centered in Harlem where Black writers, artists, musicians, and intellectuals produced new work celebrating Black life and challenging racial stereotypes (Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, jazz musicians like Duke Ellington). It happened mainly because of the Great Migration: millions of African Americans moved from the rural South to northern cities, creating larger urban Black communities with new economic opportunities and audiences. That urbanization plus continued racism and segregation pushed Black creators to define their own identity and demand civil rights (NAACP activism and debates over race). On the AP exam, tie this to Topic 7.8’s focus on migration shaping culture (KC-7.2.I.B) and to broader 1920s cultural controversies. For a focused review, check the Topic 7.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How did the immigration quotas after WWI work and who did they target?
After WWI Congress passed two major quota laws to sharply cut immigration. The Emergency Quota Act (1921) limited yearly arrivals to 3% of each nationality’s U.S. foreign-born population as of the 1910 census, which still allowed many from northern/western Europe. The Immigration Act of 1924 (Johnson-Reed) tightened that to 2% and used the 1890 census, which massively reduced entries from southern and eastern Europe and effectively favored immigrants from Britain, Ireland, and Scandinavia. The 1924 law also set an overall cap (~150,000/year) and virtually barred immigration from Asia. These laws grew out of postwar nativism, fears about urban change, and racial ideas; effects included much lower immigration, political support for restrictionist groups (like the KKK), and long-term shifts in U.S. demography. For AP review, see the Topic 7.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH) and extra practice (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What's the difference between the Red Scare and nativism in the 1920s?
They’re related but not the same. The Red Scare was a short-term panic after WWI about radical leftism—fear of Bolshevism/communism—leading to actions like the Palmer Raids, deportations, and high-profile cases (Sacco and Vanzetti). Nativism was a broader, longer-lasting preference for “native” (often white, Protestant) Americans and hostility toward immigrants—especially from southern/eastern Europe and Asia—which produced the Ku Klux Klan’s growth and national laws like the Emergency Quota Act (1921) and Immigration Act of 1924 that limited immigration. So: Red Scare = anti-radical/specific political fear that triggered repression; nativism = ethnic/racial bias that produced immigration quotas and cultural exclusion. Both overlap (people conflated immigrants with radicals), and both are key AP Topic 7.8 concepts—study the Palmer Raids, quota laws, Sacco & Vanzetti, and KKK in the Fiveable Topic 7.8 guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH). For practice, use Fiveable’s AP practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Why were Americans so divided about modernism vs traditional values in the twenties?
Because the 1920s threw rapid social change at people who’d lived with older, local traditions their whole lives. Urbanization (by 1920 most Americans lived in cities), the Great Migration, and new waves of immigrants shifted culture—jazz, the Harlem Renaissance, flappers, and new jobs for women—while rural areas held tighter to traditional religion, gender roles, and ideas about race and immigration. That clash showed up in politics and law: Prohibition, the rise of the KKK and nativism, the Emergency Quota Act/Immigration Act of 1924, and the Scopes Trial (science vs. religion). People’s responses depended on class, region, race, and religion, so debates weren’t just cultural but tied to who felt threatened economically or morally. For AP prep, tie these developments to KC-7.1 and KC-7.2 connections in essays and DBQs (use specific examples like the Scopes Trial, Sacco and Vanzetti, Harlem Renaissance). Review Topic 7.8 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH), the unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history) to turn these points into evidence for short answers and essays.
Can someone explain the Scopes Trial and why it was such a big deal?
The Scopes “Monkey” Trial (1925, Dayton, TN) tested a Tennessee law that banned teaching evolution in public schools. Teacher John Scopes was put on trial; Clarence Darrow defended him and William Jennings Bryan prosecuted. Scopes was found guilty (a conviction later overturned on a technicality), but the trial became a huge national media spectacle. Why it mattered: it boiled down to the 1920s clash between modernism (science, urban values, changing gender roles) and religious fundamentalism (traditional beliefs, rural values). The trial highlighted debates over public education, who controls curricula, and how culture was shifting as America urbanized and immigration changed cities (CED keywords: urbanization, modernism, religion). On the AP exam, Scopes is often used as evidence of 1920s cultural controversies and can appear in short-answer or DBQ prompts about cultural conflict. For a focussed review, see the Topic 7.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
I'm confused about how migration patterns changed American culture - what exactly happened?
Short answer: migration shifted American culture by moving millions into cities and changing who made culture. Urbanization (by 1920 most Americans lived in cities) drew international immigrants and internal migrants—especially the Great Migration of Black Southerners to northern cities—which produced new art, music, and politics (Harlem Renaissance, jazz, Marcus Garvey, NAACP). Cities also created modern social scenes (flappers, nightlife) and new roles for women. Those changes sparked backlash: nativism, the Ku Klux Klan’s resurgence, the Scopes Trial’s urban/rural split over modernism vs. tradition, and restrictive laws like the Emergency Quota Act (1921) and Immigration Act (1924). For APUSH, connect this to Learning Objective G (causes/effects of migration) and I (cultural developments) on essays/SAQs—use specific examples (Great Migration, Harlem Renaissance, quota acts) and explain cause → effect. Review the Topic 7.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How did the 1920s immigration laws specifically discriminate against Asians and southern Europeans?
Laws in the 1920s explicitly privileged Northern and Western Europeans while excluding Asians and sharply cutting immigration from southern and eastern Europe. The Emergency Quota Act (1921) set annual limits using recent-origin country totals; the Immigration Act of 1924 tightened that with a national-origins quota based on the 1890 census, which gave much smaller shares to southern/eastern European countries (reducing Italians, Poles, Jews). Asians were effectively barred: the 1924 law barred “aliens ineligible for citizenship,” cementing earlier exclusions (e.g., Chinese Exclusion) and stopping immigration from India, Japan, and most of Asia. These laws reflected post-WWI nativism, the Sacco-Vanzetti anti-immigrant climate, and KKK influence, and connect directly to CED Key Concept KC-7.2.II.A.ii. For a concise AP review of this topic, see Fiveable’s Topic 7.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH).
What were the effects of urbanization on women and minorities in the 1920s?
Urbanization concentrated people in cities and reshaped opportunities and restrictions for women and minorities. For women it meant more paid work in factories, clerical jobs, and retail—giving economic independence and fueling new social roles (flappers, greater leisure). That visibility also fed debates on gender roles and helped win political power (the Nineteenth Amendment). For Black Americans and other minorities, urban migration (including the Great Migration) opened industrial jobs and cultural outlets—the Harlem Renaissance, NAACP activism, and Marcus Garvey’s movement —but didn’t eliminate racism. Cities still had residential segregation, job discrimination, race riots, and explosive nativism that produced restrictive immigration laws (Emergency Quota Act 1921, Immigration Act 1924) and a resurgent KKK. On the AP exam, connect these effects to Learning Objectives G and I (migration patterns and cultural change) and use specific evidence (Great Migration, Harlem Renaissance, quota acts) for SAQs/DBQs/LEQs. For a focused review, see the Topic 7.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about cultural conflicts in the 1920s?
Start your DBQ with a clear thesis that answers the prompt about 1920s cultural conflicts (religion vs. science, urban vs. rural, nativism, Prohibition, gender roles). In your intro add contextualization: post-WWI urbanization, the Great Migration, and rising immigration that fueled nativism and the KKK. During the 15-minute reading, group the documents into 2–4 analytic categories (e.g., race/immigration, gender/modernism, religion/science). Use at least four documents to support those claims, cite one piece of outside evidence (Scopes Trial, Immigration Acts of 1921/1924, Harlem Renaissance, Sacco and Vanzetti), and explicitly source two documents (author/purpose/audience) to show why their POV matters. End with a short synthesis or complexity point (e.g., tensions produced both backlash and cultural innovation like jazz and flappers). For topic help, use the Fiveable Topic 7.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Why did nativist movements become so popular after World War I?
Nativist movements surged after WWI because rapid social change + fear combined. Mass urbanization, the Great Migration, and increased immigration from southern/eastern Europe changed cities and labor markets (KC-7.1.I.B). Returning soldiers and workers faced job competition and economic instability, so many blamed immigrants. The 1919–20 Red Scare and Palmer Raids linked radicals and immigrants, heightening xenophobia; high-profile cases like Sacco and Vanzetti fueled distrust. Cultural clashes over religion, modernism, and changing gender roles (Scopes, Jazz Age) made many want a “traditional” America, helping the KKK and nativist rhetoric grow. Politically this produced quotas and restrictions—the Emergency Quota Act (1921) and Immigration Act of 1924 (KC-7.2.II.A.ii). For the AP exam, tie these causes to effects (legislation, cultural conflict) and use specific examples. Review Topic 7.8 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What caused all the debates about gender roles and religion during the twenties?
Mostly rapid social change. In the 1920s a shift from rural to urban life (by 1920 a majority lived in cities) plus the Great Migration and heavy international immigration made U.S. communities more diverse—economically, culturally, and religiously. Women’s wartime work, the 19th Amendment (1920), and new consumer/entertainment cultures produced visible changes in gender behavior (flappers, more women in jobs and public life). At the same time, scientific ideas (like evolution) and modernist art clashed with traditional religious beliefs—the Scopes Trial is the textbook example. Those tensions fueled nativism and reactionary movements (KKK, immigration quotas, Prohibition supporters) that tried to defend “traditional” values. So debates about gender and religion weren’t isolated—they were responses to urbanization, migration, new mass culture, and competing ideas about modernism vs. tradition. For AP review, focus on Topic 7.8 keywords (Scopes Trial, flappers, Harlem Renaissance, nativism) and practice SAQ/DBQ skills (context and causation) (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH). For more practice, try Fiveable’s AP questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How did internal migration contribute to new art forms like jazz and the Harlem Renaissance?
Internal migration—especially the Great Migration of Black Americans from the rural South to northern cities—created dense urban communities where people with shared histories lived, worked, and socialized. Urban centers like Harlem concentrated talent, audiences, and new economic opportunities, letting Black writers, poets, and musicians network and experiment. That social concentration fueled the Harlem Renaissance (literature, visual arts, theater) and the Jazz Age: musicians blended African American musical traditions with urban influences, innovating forms like jazz that spread via nightclubs, recording technology, and radio. Cities also loosened traditional social controls (changing gender roles, nightlife, dance halls), giving artists audiences eager for modern culture. For AP exam prep, be ready to connect migration causes and cultural effects (CED LO G and I) in short-answer or essay prompts using specific examples (e.g., Great Migration → Harlem Renaissance; jazz clubs in Harlem). Review the Topic 7.8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-7/1920s-cultural-political-controversies/study-guide/LXAypu3iPW64jHg87JFH) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).