7.2 Imperialism: Debates

As the United States entered the 20th century, Americans debated the country's expanding role overseas. Supporters of imperialism argued for markets, military power, and national prestige, while critics warned that ruling foreign territories contradicted democratic ideals.

What to Know About Imperialism

• Imperialists saw territories such as Cuba, Hawaii, and the Philippines as sources of valuable crops and coaling stations for ships traveling to the Chinese market.
• Many expansionists used Social Darwinism and claims of Anglo-Saxon superiority to justify ruling indigenous populations.
• Supporters argued that colonies would help the United States keep pace with European powers, while overseas expansion offered a new frontier after the American frontier was declared effectively settled.
• Anti-imperialists argued that ruling unwilling populations violated self-determination, though their racial objections differed: some feared incorporation, while others opposed the racism behind conquest.
• Anti-imperialists also warned that distant possessions could create vulnerabilities and require expensive military commitments, conflicting with a tradition of avoiding foreign entanglements.

Pro-Imperialist Arguments

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Americans who favored imperial expansion based their support on several key arguments:

• Economic Opportunities: Imperialists saw financial benefits in controlling territories like Cuba, Hawaii, and the Philippines. These lands could produce valuable tropical crops and serve as strategic coaling stations for American ships traveling to the lucrative Chinese market.
• Racial and Religious Superiority: Many expansionists embraced Social Darwinism, which suggested Anglo-Saxon Americans were intellectually, morally, and spiritually superior to other peoples. This belief was used to justify displacing Spanish colonial control and ruling over indigenous populations.
• Competition with European Powers: The late 19th century saw European nations engaged in a second wave of imperial conquest. Proponents argued America needed colonies to maintain its status as a world power and keep pace with European rivals.
• The "Closed Frontier": By 1890, the American frontier was declared effectively settled. Some Americans worried that without new frontiers, the nation would lose the rugged qualities that had defined American character. Overseas expansion offered new frontiers that could preserve these perceived national virtues.

Imperialists combined these arguments to claim it was the destiny of Americans to spread their culture and institutions to peoples across the world.

Anti-Imperialist Arguments

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Those opposed to American imperialism mounted passionate resistance through organizations like the Anti-Imperialist League:

• Self-Determination: Anti-imperialists considered ruling over unwilling populations hypocritical for a nation founded on rejection of colonial rule. They emphasized America's own revolutionary heritage and the importance of consent of the governed in political theory.
• Racial Concerns: Opposition to imperialism sometimes came from conflicting racial perspectives. Some worried about incorporating non-white populations into American society, believing they couldn't assimilate. Others opposed imperialism precisely because they recognized the racist foundations of imperial conquest.
• Tradition of Isolationism: Dating back to Washington's presidency, many Americans believed the nation should avoid entangling foreign alliances. Anti-imperialists warned that territorial expansion would create new vulnerabilities and require expensive military commitments to defend distant possessions.

The debate over imperialism revealed deep tensions in American identity at the turn of the century, as the nation struggled to define its proper role in an increasingly interconnected world.