Context and Origins of the Enlightenment
The Enlightenment emerged during the 18th century as an intellectual and cultural movement that challenged the traditional structures of power in Europe. It was deeply rooted in the legacy of the Scientific Revolution, which emphasized reason, observation, and the questioning of long-held beliefs. Humanist values from the Renaissance and the religious skepticism from the Protestant Reformation had already begun to weaken the unquestioned authority of the Church and monarchy. As Europeans increasingly embraced empirical evidence, rational thought, and individualism, Enlightenment thinkers—or philosophes—began applying these principles not just to science, but to government, economics, education, and society as a whole.
💡 Many Enlightenment ideals centered around the belief in progress—the idea that human society could be improved through education, rational discourse, and political reform. These thinkers wanted to build a better world by encouraging freedom of speech, freedom of religion, equality before the law, and the protection of natural rights.
Political Theories
Challenging Absolutism
While monarchs had claimed divine right and absolute power, many Enlightenment thinkers began to question this logic. They argued instead that governments derived their authority from the consent of the governed and should exist to protect the rights of the people.
- Thomas Hobbes, author of Leviathan, believed that humans were inherently selfish and violent, and thus needed a strong, centralized authority to maintain order. He supported absolutism as necessary to prevent anarchy.
- John Locke, in contrast, argued in his ==Two Treatises of Government that humans are born with natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and that governments are created to protect these rights.== If a government fails to do so, the people have the right to overthrow it. Locke’s idea of the mind as a tabula rasa (blank slate) emphasized the role of environment and education in shaping individuals.
Enlightenment Thinkers on Government
- Voltaire praised the English constitutional system for its protections of civil liberties. In Letters on the English, he argued for religious toleration, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press. He harshly criticized organized religion, which he saw as corrupt and intolerant.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote The Social Contract, asserting that the general will—the collective desires of the people—should guide the laws of a nation. Rousseau believed society corrupted the natural goodness of individuals, and though he supported political reform, he also reinforced traditional gender roles, arguing that women belonged in the domestic sphere.
- Baron de Montesquieu, a French noble, proposed in The Spirit of the Laws the concept of separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. His ideas became foundational to modern liberal democracies and directly influenced the U.S. Constitution.
- Denis Diderot compiled the Encyclopédie, a 35-volume work that gathered and spread Enlightenment knowledge. It included articles on science, government, philosophy, and religion and helped democratize access to information throughout Europe.
The Role of Women in Enlightenment Discourse
Although many Enlightenment thinkers advocated for reason and equality, most excluded women from political life. Women, however, played a crucial role in spreading Enlightenment ideas—especially in salons, where intellectuals debated philosophy, science, and politics.
- Mary Wollstonecraft challenged these exclusions in her 1792 work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. She argued that women were not naturally inferior but only appeared so due to their lack of access to education. Wollstonecraft insisted that women should be regarded as rational beings, equally capable of contributing to society.
💡 While most male philosophes advocated progress for men, figures like Wollstonecraft laid the intellectual foundations for the modern feminist movement.
Economic Theories
Challenging Mercantilism
Just as political thinkers questioned absolute monarchy, Enlightenment economists rejected mercantilism, the state-controlled economic system that prioritized exports and hoarded wealth.
- Adam Smith, in The Wealth of Nations (1776), proposed laissez-faire capitalism, where the economy is guided by natural forces like supply and demand, not government intervention. He argued that the "invisible hand" of the market would regulate trade and benefit society as a whole. Smith believed that self-interest, when left unregulated, would ultimately serve the public good.
Smith’s theories laid the groundwork for modern capitalism and inspired a shift toward economic liberalism across Europe in the 19th century.
Religious Ideas
Deism and Skepticism
Many Enlightenment thinkers remained religious, but they rejected organized religion and traditional Christian dogma.
- Voltaire was a fierce critic of religious intolerance and the abuses of the Catholic Church. In Treatise on Toleration, he advocated for religious freedom and the separation of church and state.
- Voltaire also supported Deism: The belief that God created the universe but no longer intervened in its workings.
- David Hume and Immanuel Kant contributed to religious skepticism, questioning whether human reason could truly comprehend the existence or nature of God. Their ideas undermined the Church’s authority and encouraged a more secular outlook in Europe.
Significance of the Enlightenment
The Enlightenment dramatically reshaped European thought and institutions. It:
- Helped justify revolutions such as the American and French Revolutions, where Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and democracy were used to overthrow monarchies.
- Undermined the absolute authority of kings and the Church, replacing it with secularism and representative government.
- Promoted the expansion of literacy, education, and scientific discovery.
- Planted the intellectual seeds of modern liberal democracy, capitalism, and human rights.
While Enlightenment thinkers didn’t always agree—especially on gender, race, and religion—their shared emphasis on reason, progress, and freedom fundamentally reshaped the course of European and global history.
🎥 Watch: AP Europe - Enlightenment
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| academies | Institutions that broadened the audience for new Enlightenment ideas through formal intellectual gatherings and education. |
| atheism | The philosophical position that denies the existence of God or gods. |
| coffeehouses | Public institutions that served as venues for intellectual discussion and the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas. |
| consent of the governed | The principle that legitimate government authority derives from the agreement and acceptance of the people being governed. |
| deism | A philosophical position that believes in God based on reason and observation of nature rather than religious revelation or doctrine. |
| divine right | The traditional political theory that monarchs derive their authority directly from God rather than from the people. |
| empiricism | The philosophical approach that knowledge is derived from sensory experience and observation rather than from innate ideas or authority. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| free market | An economic system in which prices and production are determined by supply and demand with minimal government intervention. |
| free trade | An economic principle advocating the removal of government restrictions on commerce and the exchange of goods between nations. |
| French Revolution | A period of radical social and political upheaval in France (1789-1799) that fundamentally transformed French society and had lasting effects across Europe. |
| Masonic lodges | Organizations that served as institutions for discussing and spreading Enlightenment thought among their members. |
| mercantilism | An economic theory and practice that emphasized national wealth accumulation through trade surpluses, colonial expansion, and government regulation of commerce. |
| natural rights | Fundamental rights believed to belong to all people by virtue of their humanity, not granted by government. |
| Physiocrats | A school of economic thought that challenged mercantilism by emphasizing agriculture and natural economic laws. |
| Pietism | A religious movement emphasizing personal faith and emotional experience, which experienced a revival in Germany during the Enlightenment. |
| rationalism | The philosophical emphasis on human reason and logical thinking as the primary means of understanding the world and solving problems. |
| salons | Institutions, typically hosted in private homes, where intellectuals gathered to discuss and disseminate Enlightenment ideas. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| skepticism | The philosophical attitude of questioning and doubting established beliefs and authorities, demanding evidence and rational justification. |
| social contract | Political theory proposing that individuals agree to surrender some freedoms to a government in exchange for protection of their remaining rights and maintenance of social order. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the Enlightenment and when did it happen?
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe (roughly mid-1600s through the late 1700s, with key influence continuing to 1815) that applied reason, empiricism, and scientific methods to questions about society, government, economics, and religion. Thinkers like Locke, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, Smith, and Beccaria challenged divine-right monarchy, promoted natural rights and the social contract, critiqued mercantilism, and advanced ideas such as deism, skepticism, and individual liberty (CED keywords). It spread through salons, coffeehouses, lending libraries, and Masonic lodges and influenced reforms, revolutions, and debates about equality—though many Enlightenment writers still excluded women (e.g., Rousseau), prompting critics like Wollstonecraft. On the AP exam, you’ll see Enlightenment content in multiple-choice and FRQs (short answers, DBQ, LEQ) about causes/consequences from 1648–1815. For a focused review, check the Topic 4.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the main ideas of Enlightenment thinkers?
Enlightenment thinkers argued that human reason, evidence, and natural rights—not tradition or divine right—should guide society. Key ideas: - Empiricism and skepticism: knowledge comes from observation (Hume) and questioning authority. - Rationalism and progress: reason could improve laws, education, and morals (Voltaire, Diderot). - Natural rights and social contract: Locke (life, liberty, property) and Rousseau (popular sovereignty) redefined state legitimacy. - Separation of powers and rule of law: Montesquieu argued checks on authority to prevent abuse. - Criminal justice reform: Beccaria opposed torture and arbitrary punishment. - Economic liberalism: Physiocrats and Adam Smith promoted free markets and criticism of mercantilism. - Religion and public life: deism, secularization, and privatized faith challenged clerical control. Limits: many Enlightenment thinkers still excluded women (Rousseau); critics like Wollstonecraft pushed back. On the AP exam, you’ll often contextualize these ideas (SAQ/DBQ/LEQ), cite specific thinkers, and link causes/consequences (CED Topic 4.3). For a concise review, see the Topic 4.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did intellectuals start applying scientific methods to society and government?
Because the Scientific Revolution showed that observation, experiment, and reason could reveal “natural laws” in nature, Enlightenment intellectuals thought the same methods could explain and improve human society and government. They trusted empiricism, skepticism, and rational analysis over tradition or divine right, so thinkers like Montesquieu and Beccaria tried to identify laws of politics and justice (separation of powers; fair punishments). Philosophers used social-contract ideas (Locke, Rousseau) to reframe state legitimacy as consent, not birthright. New institutions—salons, coffeehouses, academies—spread these arguments and made reform appear practical, not just theoretical. For AP Euro, connect this to KC-2.3.I.A and II.A: show how Scientific Revolution methods led to political models and critiques of mercantilism and religion. Want a focused review? Check the topic study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did John Locke and Rousseau's ideas about natural rights change political thinking?
Locke and Rousseau shifted political thinking by grounding government in natural rights and the social contract rather than divine right or tradition. Locke argued people have inherent rights to life, liberty, and property; governments exist by the consent of the governed to protect those rights, and can be replaced if they fail (influential for constitutionalism and liberalism). Rousseau emphasized popular sovereignty and the “general will,” arguing legitimate authority comes from a social contract where citizens collectively make laws—this stressed civic participation and equality (though he had controversial views on women). Together they moved Europe toward ideas of individual rights, limited government, and justifications for revolution and reform—concepts you’ll need for AP evidence and argumentation on DBQs/LEQs in Unit 4 (see the Topic 4.3 study guide for review: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW). Practice related questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the difference between Locke's and Rousseau's theories about government?
Locke and Rousseau both used the idea of a social contract, but they start from different assumptions and reach different conclusions. - John Locke: People in the state of nature have natural rights (life, liberty, property). Because individuals are driven by self-interest, they consent to government to protect those rights. Sovereignty is limited: government derives authority from the consent of the governed and can be replaced if it violates rights (influence on liberal constitutionalism). (See CED KC-2.3.III.A.) - Jean-Jacques Rousseau: People are naturally good but corrupted by society. His social contract transforms individuals into a collective “general will.” Legitimacy comes from direct popular sovereignty and civic virtue; property and inequality are suspect. Government should express the general will, even if it limits particular interests. On the AP exam, use Locke when discussing natural rights/consent and Rousseau when addressing popular sovereignty, general will, or tensions about equality (Topic 4.3). For review, check the Topic 4.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I'm confused about the social contract theory - can someone explain it in simple terms?
Think of the social contract like an agreement people make to form a government. Enlightenment thinkers (especially John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau) argued that before governments, people had natural rights (life, liberty, property). To protect those rights, individuals consented—explicitly or implicitly—to give some powers to a ruler or assembly. If the government protects rights and rules by the consent of the governed, it’s legitimate; if it fails, people can change it (Locke). Rousseau emphasized the "general will"—laws should reflect the common interests of citizens. This idea rejects divine-right monarchy and underpins later ideas about popular sovereignty and rights on the AP exam (Topic 4.3). Review Locke vs. Rousseau differences and how social contract influenced revolutions for multiple-choice, short-answer, and essays. For a focused recap, see the Topic 4.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau exclude women from politics even though they talked about equality?
Rousseau argued for equality in the abstract (natural rights, social contract) but still excluded women because his model of citizenship rested on a public “general will” that he thought required independent, rational individuals shaped by a particular kind of education and life. He believed men belonged in the public/political sphere and women in the private/domestic sphere (see Emile and The Social Contract), arguing that sexual differences made women better suited to family roles. That mix of philosophical individualism plus gendered “separate spheres,” biological assumptions, and fears that women’s participation would introduce factionalism helps explain the contradiction. Critics like Mary Wollstonecraft and Condorcet explicitly challenged Rousseau’s views (CED cites them). For AP use: note this tension as a continuity/contradiction when you contextualize Enlightenment ideas on free thought versus social practice (use Topic 4.3 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW). Practice related questions at https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history.
How did Mary Wollstonecraft challenge Rousseau's views on women?
Rousseau argued (in Emile and other writings) that women were naturally different and best suited to the private/domestic sphere—educated to please men and raise children, not to take part in politics. Mary Wollstonecraft directly challenged that in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). She used Enlightenment ideas of reason and natural rights (CED keywords) to argue women are rational beings whose apparent “inferiority” comes from poor education and social conditioning, not nature. Wollstonecraft called for equal (or at least improved) education, civic participation, and moral independence for women—rejecting Rousseau’s separate-spheres model. Her critique is a key example of Enlightenment contradictions: the era’s equality language often excluded women, and thinkers like Wollstonecraft and Condorcet pushed back (KC-2.3.I.C). For a concise Topic 4.3 review, see the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were salons and coffeehouses and how did they spread Enlightenment ideas?
Salons were private, often aristocratic gatherings—frequently hosted by women—where writers, philosophers (like Voltaire or Diderot), and nobles discussed literature, science, and politics. Coffeehouses were public, commercial spaces where merchants, lawyers, and urbanites debated news and ideas. Both expanded audiences for Enlightenment thought by: 1) creating regular networks for debate and critique; 2) linking intellectuals to patrons and publishers (helping spread books like the Encyclopédie); and 3) encouraging print culture—pamphlets, journals, and letters that carried ideas beyond the meeting. Together with academies, lending libraries, and Masonic lodges (CED: KC-2.3.II.A), they turned abstract Enlightenment concepts—reason, empiricism, natural rights—into social movements that influenced politics and reform. For AP prep, be ready to connect these institutions to thinkers (Locke, Rousseau, Montesquieu) and to exam tasks asking about causes/consequences of Enlightenment thought (Unit 4.3). See the Topic 4.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did Adam Smith's economic ideas challenge mercantilism?
Adam Smith challenged mercantilism by arguing that wealth came from production and free exchange, not hoarding bullion or state-controlled trade. In The Wealth of Nations he promoted a free market guided by the “invisible hand”—individual self-interest and competition would allocate resources more efficiently than government monopolies, tariffs, or navigation acts. This directly opposed mercantilist policies that prioritized positive trade balances, colonial restrictions, and strong state intervention. Smith built on physiocratic ideas (like Quesnay) but went further: he favored division of labor, laissez-faire trade, and minimal government limited to defense, justice, and public works. For AP review, link this to KC-2.3.III.B (new economic ideas challenging mercantilism). If you want a short refresher, check the Topic 4.3 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the difference between deism, skepticism, and atheism that Voltaire and Diderot wrote about?
Deism, skepticism, and atheism are related but distinct positions Enlightenment thinkers used to critique organized religion. - Deism: Belief in a rational Creator who set the universe in motion but doesn’t intervene in daily life or miracles. Voltaire often favored deism—he rejected church dogma and superstition while keeping a belief in a creator grounded by reason and the “clockmaker” idea. This fit Enlightenment emphasis on natural law and empiricism (CED keywords). - Skepticism: An attitude of doubt toward accepted beliefs and authorities. Diderot and others used skeptical methods to challenge miracles, dogma, and clerical power without necessarily denying God. Skepticism pushed religion into the private sphere (CED: religion as private). - Atheism: Rejection of belief in any god. Some philosophes (e.g., parts of Diderot’s circle) moved here, arguing religion had no rational basis. For the AP exam, be ready to explain how these ideas applied scientific reasoning to society and how they weakened public authority of churches (Topic 4.3). For a quick review, see the Topic 4.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did the Enlightenment change people's views on religion and make it more private?
The Enlightenment shifted religion from a public, state-centered affair to a private, personal choice by encouraging reason, skepticism, and natural religion. Thinkers like Voltaire and Diderot criticized church authority and promoted deism—belief in a distant creator rather than active clerical control—while Locke’s emphasis on individual conscience and rights undercut divine-right justification for state churches. Salons, coffeehouses, and print culture spread these ideas, so people debated faith privately rather than accepting official doctrine (CED: KC-2.3.I, KC-2.3.IV.A, KC-2.3.IV.B). Consequences: religious toleration grew, institutional power of churches declined, and faith became a matter of personal belief and moral reason. On the AP exam, expect short-answer or LEQ/DBQ prompts about Enlightenment challenges to institutions—use examples (Voltaire, Diderot, deism, salons) and connect to changing public vs. private roles of religion. For more review, see the Topic 4.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the long-term consequences of Enlightenment thought on European society?
Enlightenment ideas had deep, lasting effects on European society. Politically, thinkers like Locke and Rousseau shifted authority from divine right to consent and the social contract, helping inspire constitutionalism, revolutions (e.g., France), and later demands for expanded suffrage. Intellectually and culturally, emphasis on reason, empiricism, and skepticism promoted secularization, deism, and new public spheres (salons, coffeehouses, lending libraries, Masonic lodges) that spread debate. Legally and socially, Montesquieu and Beccaria pushed for separation of powers and humane criminal codes; economic thinkers (Adam Smith, physiocrats) challenged mercantilism and encouraged market ideas. The Enlightenment also sparked debates about equality—leading critics like Wollstonecraft and Condorcet to press for women’s rights while many philosophers still excluded women. For AP prep, be ready to connect these long-term consequences across politics, society, and culture in DBQs/LEQs (use specific examples and contextualization). Review the Topic 4.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW), the Unit 4 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about the causes and effects of Enlightenment ideas?
Start with a clear thesis that answers “how Enlightenment ideas caused change and what they produced” (put it in your intro or conclusion). Quick plan: 1) contextualize (link Enlightenment to the Scientific Revolution and new ideas about reason, natural rights, and social contract—Locke, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot). 2) Use at least four documents to support causes (e.g., intellectuals applying scientific methods, salons/coffeehouses spreading ideas) and effects (legal reform, challenged mercantilism—Adam Smith, enlightened absolutism, limits like exclusion of women). 3) Add one specific outside fact (e.g., Mary Wollstonecraft’s Vindication or Beccaria’s reforms). 4) For two documents, explain POV/purpose/audience (sourcing). 5) Show complexity: multiple causes/effects, or that ideas spread unevenly (elite salons vs. popular religion). Remember DBQ rules: defensible thesis, contextualization, use ≥4 docs, one outside evidence, sourcing for ≥2 docs, and a complex understanding. For extra practice and review check the Topic 4.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW), unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4) and 1000+ practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Did Enlightenment ideas actually lead to more equality or just benefit wealthy educated people?
Short answer: both. Enlightenment ideas (Locke’s natural rights, Rousseau’s social contract, Montesquieu’s separation of powers, Beccaria on criminal justice) challenged traditional authority and provided language for greater equality, legal reform, and later revolutions. But in practice most discussion and institutions—salons, coffeehouses, academies, encyclopedists—were dominated by wealthy, educated men, and thinkers like Rousseau often excluded women. Reformers and “enlightened absolutists” sometimes used ideas to modernize law and administration, yet elites usually controlled who benefited first. So the short-term consequence was greater influence for educated elites; the long-term consequence was broader change: ideas spread (print culture, lending libraries, coffeehouses) and helped inspire revolutions and legal reforms that expanded rights over the 19th century. For AP prep, focus on causes/consequences and contradictions (CED keywords: Locke, Rousseau, Voltaire, Diderot, salons, social contract, Mary Wollstonecraft). See the Topic 4.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/enlightenment/study-guide/1Aowqp8mKobUd5QsA2DW) and more practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).