4.6 Enlightened and Other Approaches to Power

In the 18th century, several rulers in eastern and central Europe practiced enlightened absolutism, applying Enlightenment ideas like legal reform and religious toleration while keeping full control of the state. At the same time, the Peace of Westphalia had reshaped Europe by weakening the Holy Roman Empire's central authority, allowing Prussia to rise, while the Habsburgs later turned their focus to their eastern, non-German lands.

Frederick II and Joseph II work as evidence when an argument asks whether Enlightenment thinking reinforced or challenged the political order between 1648 and 1815. Westphalia adds the other half, since it explains shifts in the balance of power across central Europe.

Enlightened Absolutism and the Westphalia Settlement

• Enlightened absolutism describes 18th-century rulers in eastern and central Europe who used Enlightenment reforms while keeping power concentrated in the monarch.
• By 1800, most governments in western and central Europe extended toleration to Christian minorities, and some states granted civil equality to Jews.
• The Peace of Westphalia (1648) limited the Holy Roman Empire's sovereignty, which helped Prussia rise and pushed the Habsburgs to shift their empire eastward into Austria.
• Frederick II of Prussia and Joseph II of Austria are the key examples of enlightened monarchs to know for this topic.
• Maria Theresa, Frederick William I, and Frederick II are the Prussian and Habsburg rulers tied to this story of centralization and reform.
• Reform from above often clashed with nobility, clergy, and tradition, so many changes were partial or reversed.

Quick Reference

What Enlightened Absolutism Actually Means

Enlightened absolutism (sometimes called enlightened despotism) describes monarchs who adopted Enlightenment ideas without giving up authority. They pushed reforms like codified laws, religious toleration, and state-supported education, but they did this from the top down, not through representative government.

The key difference from earlier absolutists is the justification. Older absolutist rulers leaned heavily on divine right. Enlightened absolutists claimed to rule in the interest of the people and the good of the state, using reason and reform as their justification while still holding full control over policy.

A number of states in eastern and central Europe experimented with this approach during the 18th century. Religious change was part of it: by 1800, most governments in western and central Europe had extended toleration to Christian minorities, and some states went further by granting civil equality to Jews.

The Peace of Westphalia and the Rise of Prussia

Image source: Astrokey44 / CC BY-SA 3.0

The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the Thirty Years' War and limited the sovereignty of the Holy Roman Empire. With the Empire's central authority weakened, individual German states gained more independent control over their own affairs.

Two big results followed:

• Prussia rose to power, building a centralized state with a strong bureaucracy and military.
• The Habsburgs, centered in Austria, shifted their empire eastward.

This matters for the question of a unified Europe. Westphalia made the Holy Roman Empire a much looser collection of states rather than a single unified power, which is a useful point if a prompt asks how political developments challenged or reinforced European unity.

Enlightened Monarchs to Know

These are the rulers the course highlights for this topic. Use them as evidence when explaining how Enlightenment thought shaped political power.

Frederick II "the Great" of Prussia (1740-1786)

Frederick II is the model enlightened monarch for Prussia. He promoted religious toleration, reformed the legal code, and supported arts and philosophy, even corresponding with Voltaire. He called himself "the first servant of the state," but he kept tight control over policy and foreign affairs. His reforms strengthened the Prussian state without weakening the monarch.

Joseph II of Austria (reigned 1780-1790, co-regent from 1765)

Joseph II is often treated as the most aggressive reformer among enlightened monarchs. He issued an Edict of Toleration extending religious freedom to Protestants and Jews, reduced the Catholic Church's power, and pushed reforms in education and serfdom. Many of his changes ran into strong resistance from nobility and clergy, and several were reversed after his death, which shows how reform from above often collided with entrenched social structures.

Maria Theresa of Austria

Maria Theresa is a Habsburg ruler tied to this period of centralization and reform. She strengthened Austria's administration and education while remaining a traditional Catholic monarch. She is useful for showing that reform and traditional monarchy often went together rather than being opposites.

Frederick William I of Prussia (reigned 1713-1740)

Frederick William I focused on building Prussia's army and bureaucracy, earning the nickname the "Soldier King." His work laid the groundwork that Frederick II later built on. He fits the broader story of Prussian centralization more than the Enlightenment reform story, so use him carefully.

Arguing How Enlightenment Ideas Shaped Royal Power

Causation: Be ready to explain why rulers adopted Enlightenment reforms. The spread of Enlightenment thought gave monarchs a new way to justify and strengthen central authority. Tie specific reforms (legal codes, toleration, education) back to the goal of a more efficient, loyal, and centralized state.

Continuity and Change: Enlightened absolutists continued the long trend of centralizing power and building bureaucracies, but they changed how rulers justified that power. Show both sides: the continuity of strong monarchy and the change toward reason and reform as justification.

Comparison: Set enlightened absolutists against earlier absolutist rulers from Unit 3. Both concentrated power, but their reasoning and their willingness to reform differed. Frederick II versus an earlier divine-right absolutist is a clean comparison.

Using Sources Effectively: If you get a document tied to a ruler like Frederick II or Joseph II, think about purpose and point of view. A monarch describing himself as a servant of the state is making a political claim, not just stating a fact. Use that gap between rhetoric and reality in your analysis.

Common Trap: Do not treat enlightened absolutism as a move toward democracy. These rulers reformed institutions but kept full control. Reform from above is not the same as shared power.

Common Misconceptions

• Misconception: Enlightened absolutists gave up power.
  Actually: Enlightened absolutists did not give up power. They used reform to strengthen the monarchy, not to share authority with the people.
• Misconception: Religious toleration meant full equality everywhere.
  Actually: Religious toleration did not mean full equality everywhere. Toleration was often limited, and civil equality for Jews appeared only in some states by 1800.
• Misconception: The Peace of Westphalia created a unified Germany.
  Actually: The Peace of Westphalia did not create a unified Germany. It weakened the Holy Roman Empire's central authority, which allowed Prussia and Austria to grow as separate powers.
• Misconception: Enlightened reform was always permanent.
  Actually: Enlightened reform was not always permanent. Joseph II's reforms show that nobility and clergy could push back and reverse changes after a ruler's death.
• Misconception: Catherine the Great and Napoleon are required names for this topic.
  Actually: Catherine the Great and Napoleon are common examples of related rulers, but the monarchs the course names specifically for this topic are Frederick II of Prussia and Joseph II of Austria, along with Habsburg and Prussian rulers like Maria Theresa and Frederick William I. Treat broader examples as applications, not as required names for this topic.

Related AP European History Guides

• Unit 4 Review: Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments
• 4.3 The Enlightenment
• 4.2 The Scientific Revolution
• 4.1 Contextualizing the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment
• 4.4 18th-Century Society and Demographics
• 4.5 18th-Century Culture and Arts