The Outcomes of War
The first half of the 20th century was marked by wars of unprecedented scale. These conflicts fundamentally altered Europe's political, social, and cultural landscape. The lack of balance in European power structures exacerbated crises, leading to the emergence of two major global powers: the United States and the Soviet Union. Despite initial reluctance, U.S. participation in World War II helped solidify its position as a global superpower, while the Soviet Union emerged as a rival after enduring fewer direct consequences of the war compared to other European nations. The period of intense conflict also created polarization between these two powers, shaping global politics throughout the Cold War.
After WWI
- Devastation and Loss: World War I resulted in over 8.5 million soldier deaths and 7 million civilian deaths, leading to massive social and economic upheaval across Europe.
- Treaty of Versailles: The peace treaty, signed in 1919, imposed harsh reparations and territorial losses on Germany, creating long-standing grievances.
- The Diplomatic Idealism at the Paris Peace Conference led to a settlement that largely benefited the victorious powers, while Germany felt unfairly treated, fueling later resentment that contributed to the rise of Adolf Hitler.
- Russian Revolution (1917): The Russian Revolution marked the emergence of communism as a significant force in Europe, altering the political dynamics of the continent.
The Interwar and Post-WWII Period
- Rise of Authoritarianism: Following World War I, Europe saw the rise of fascist regimes and communist ideologies, as people sought stability in the aftermath of economic hardship.
- Fascism: Leaders like Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany capitalized on economic distress and social unrest, using extreme nationalism, racism, and propaganda to build support.
- Communism: In contrast, the Soviet Union, under Stalin, pursued a policy of state-controlled industry and collectivized agriculture, aiming to create a classless society.
- Ideological Clashes: The post-WWII period witnessed intense ideological conflicts between democracy, communism, and fascism, especially during the Cold War. These clashes fundamentally shaped European societies and their relationship to the state.
Intellectual and Cultural Movements
The catastrophic events of the 20th century led to a reexamination of the notion of objective knowledge and a reevaluation of the role of reason and religion in determining truth.
Psychology and Science
- Sigmund Freud: Freud’s theories on the unconscious and the nature of human desires challenged traditional views of human behavior.
- Albert Einstein and Quantum Mechanics: Einstein’s Theory of Relativity and Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle reshaped the understanding of physics, challenging the Newtonian worldview.
- These breakthroughs undermined the belief in a predictable, orderly universe, contributing to a broader sense of uncertainty.
Role of Religion
- Secularization: While Europe saw an increasing trend toward secularism, some totalitarian regimes like Nazi Germany used religion to bolster their ideologies, promoting a specific form of nationalistic Christianity.
- Fascist Ideology: Fascist movements in Italy and Germany emphasized the purity of the nation and excluded certain groups, using religion as a tool of control rather than spiritual guidance.
Art and Literature
- Modernism: The trauma of the wars and the disillusionment that followed sparked a shift in artistic expression. Artists like Pablo Picasso and Marcel Duchamp experimented with new forms, challenging traditional aesthetics.
- Literature: Writers such as Virginia Woolf and James Joyce explored the complexities of human consciousness through experimental narrative techniques like stream-of-consciousness, reflecting the fragmented experience of modern life.
Demographics and Economics
The wars and the shifting political landscape resulted in significant demographic and economic changes in Europe.
Demographic Changes
- Post-War Migrations: After WWII, there was a large movement of people across Europe, as many sought refuge from the aftermath of the wars, while others moved to rebuild war-torn countries.
- Decolonization: As European empires collapsed, former colonies gained independence, and many people from these regions migrated to Europe, contributing to the rise of multicultural societies.
- Racism and Xenophobia: These demographic shifts also exacerbated racial tensions, as immigrants faced discrimination and exclusion, particularly in Western European countries.
Economic Growth and Challenges
- Post-War Recovery: The economic devastation caused by the wars required extensive rebuilding, and initiatives like the Marshall Plan helped finance the recovery of Western Europe.
- Industrial Growth: Europe’s industrial output skyrocketed in the post-WWII era, leading to rapid urbanization and suburbanization. Despite this, the benefits of economic growth were not evenly distributed, leading to growing social inequality.
Conclusion
The 20th century in Europe was a period of profound change, shaped by the devastating consequences of two world wars, the rise of totalitarian regimes, and the ideological and cultural shifts that followed. The wars disrupted traditional political structures and led to new global power dynamics, with the U.S. and the Soviet Union emerging as dominant players. At the same time, intellectual movements challenged existing ideas about knowledge, reason, and the role of religion, while demographic and economic changes reshaped European societies. Despite the immense suffering brought by warfare and genocide, the 20th century also witnessed significant progress in technology, science, and the standard of living, making it a defining period in European history.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is total war and how was it different from wars before WWI?
Total war means mobilizing an entire society—economy, politics, culture, and population—for war, not just armies. In WWI that looked like mass conscription, state control of industry, rationing, civilian morale campaigns, widespread propaganda, and new tech (artillery, chemical weapons) that caused huge civilian and military casualties. Before WWI, wars were more limited: professional armies, shorter campaigns, and less direct disruption of civilians’ daily lives or economies. WWI blurred the line between front and home, producing demographic shocks, economic strain (Great Depression links later), and political instability that fed ideologies like fascism and totalitarianism. For AP exam use: connect “total war” to KC-4.1/KC-4.4 (mass suffering, state power, propaganda) in SAQs or LEQs, and cite consequences in DBQs on 20th-century conflict. Review Topic 8.11 for more examples (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did World War I cause so much political instability in Europe?
World War I created huge political instability because it was total war: massive casualties, economic collapse, and social dislocation shattered old elites and trust in institutions (CED KC-4.1, KC-4.4). Armistice settlements—especially the Treaty of Versailles—left many states resentful and economies weakened, producing hyperinflation and unemployment (Weimar Republic’s crisis). Those stresses made radical ideologies attractive: communism promised class revolution, fascism promised order and national renewal (KC-4.2). States experimented with democracy, authoritarianism, and totalitarianism as leaders tried to reorder society and the economy. For AP essays/SAQs, emphasize causation and connect war’s economic/social disruptions to ideological shifts and the rise of leaders like Mussolini and Hitler. For a concise review, check the Topic 8.11 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to prep evidence and contextualization.
What's the difference between fascism, communism, and democracy in the 20th century?
Fascism, communism, and democracy offered different answers to how the state and individual relate in the 20th century. Democracy (liberal democracy) prioritized competitive elections, civil liberties, market economies, and often welfare-state reforms after WWII. Communism (as in the Soviet model) pushed for single-party rule, state ownership of industry, planned economies, and suppression of political pluralism—totalitarian features like state control of media and purges under Stalin. Fascism (Mussolini, Nazism) was authoritarian + intensely nationalistic and racist, rejected liberal rights and parliamentary politics, used propaganda and mass mobilization, and kept private property but under strict state control. Economic crisis (Great Depression), total war, and fears about stability pushed many toward authoritarian solutions (CED KC-4.1, KC-4.2). For AP practice, you might use these differences in a LEQ comparison or DBQ about state vs. individual; review Topic 8.11 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did the Treaty of Versailles actually make things worse instead of creating peace?
The Treaty of Versailles “made things worse” because it mixed idealism with harsh punishment (CED KC-4.1.II). Key problems: it forced Germany to accept the War Guilt Clause and heavy reparations, which crippled its economy and helped trigger hyperinflation and the Great Depression’s political fallout; it redrew borders using imperfect self-determination, leaving minorities unhappy; and it weakened Germany’s democratic Weimar Republic, creating fertile ground for extremist movements like Nazism and fascism. Internationally, the treaty didn’t create a strong enforcement system (the League was limited), so many states pursued revisionist agendas rather than stable cooperation. On the AP exam, this fits causation and continuity/change prompts about how WWI’s peace settlements led to WWII (use KC-4.1.I–III). For more review, see the Topic 8.11 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS), Unit 8 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I'm confused about appeasement - why didn't Britain and France just stop Hitler earlier?
Short answer: Britain and France chose appeasement because of fear, limits, and miscalculation. After WWI the public and leaders were traumatized by total war and the Great Depression made rearmament hard—electorates resisted another large war. Militarily they weren’t ready in the 1930s, so delaying seemed safer. Many politicians also thought some of Hitler’s demands (revising the Treaty of Versailles, uniting German-speaking lands) were reasonable, so concessions might preserve peace. Chamberlain and Daladier hoped negotiation would contain Germany; the Munich Agreement (1938) is the key example. Finally, intelligence underestimated how expansionist Nazi ideology really was, so leaders misread Hitler’s aims. This mix of economic strain, public opinion, military unpreparedness, and ideological confusion explains appeasement and connects to KC-4.1.III in the CED. For a focused review on Topic 8.11 see Fiveable’s study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What caused the economic collapse that led to extremist governments taking over?
Mostly it was a mix of post-WWI shocks + policy failures that wrecked economies and opened the door to extremists. After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles left Germany with huge reparations, territorial loss, and political instability (Weimar Republic). Hyperinflation in 1923 wiped out savings; then the 1929 Great Depression caused massive unemployment, bank failures, and collapsing trade across Europe. People lost faith in democratic institutions and turned to movements promising quick, decisive solutions—fascists and communists offered strong state control, nationalism, and jobs. This fits KC-4.2: economic collapse + total war created internal conflicts and changed ideas about the state vs. the individual. For AP prep, review Topic 8.11 in the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS) and practice related questions at Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to meet DBQ/LEQ evidence and causation requirements.
How did World War II change the relationship between individuals and their governments?
World War II reshaped how people related to states in three big ways. First, total war vastly expanded state power: conscription, civilian mobilization, rationing, propaganda, and centralized economic planning (Keynesian policies) made governments part of everyday life and justified intrusive measures in the name of survival. Second, the war’s violence and crimes (including the Holocaust) led to new limits and responsibilities for states—human-rights language, Nuremberg trials, and institutions like the UN—so citizens expected governments to protect rights and to be held accountable. Third, postwar reconstruction created expanded social contracts: Marshall Plan aid, welfare states, and security pacts (NATO, later European cooperation such as the ECSC) traded broader social protections for higher state involvement in economies and citizens’ lives. Those shifts—from emergency controls to long-term social and transnational governance—are key AP themes for Unit 8 (continuity/change). For a quick review, see the Topic 8.11 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Can someone explain how total war affected regular people's daily lives?
Total war meant governments mobilized entire societies, so daily life changed a lot. Economically, civilians faced rationing, price controls, and redirected industry—women and teens joined factories and munition work as men entered military service. Politically and culturally, states expanded control through conscription, censorship, and propaganda to keep morale high; that shifted ideas about individual duty vs. state authority (ties to totalitarianism, welfare state, and ideological struggles in the CED). People also experienced mass displacement, urban bombing, and food shortages that produced civilian casualties and long-term demographic change. Afterward, demands for security and social welfare helped create welfare states (Marshall Plan, NATO era responses). For AP prep, these are useful DBQ/LEQ themes—use primary sources on propaganda, rationing, and government orders to support claims. See the Topic 8.11 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did so many people lose faith in objective knowledge and reason after the world wars?
The world wars showed that “reason” and scientific progress could create unprecedented destruction, mass death, and genocide (WWI trench slaughter, WWII Holocaust, atomic bombs), so many people doubted that objective knowledge automatically meant moral progress. Total war, propaganda, and totalitarian ideologies (fascism, Stalinism) revealed how experts, science, and bureaucracies could be used to harm civilians and erase individual rights (CED KC-4.1, KC-4.2, KC-4.3). Economic collapse and failed diplomacy (Versailles, Great Depression) also discredited liberal faith in steady progress. Those shocks fueled intellectual movements—existentialism, modernist skepticism, and critiques of reason—that questioned whether pure reason could deliver truth or ethical guidance. For AP review, connect this to KC-4.3’s point that science/technology both improved lives and “caused immense destruction,” and use the Topic 8.11 study guide for examples and sources (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS). For more practice, check Fiveable’s AP practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the long-term consequences of having two world wars so close together?
Having two world wars within three decades reshaped Europe long-term in several linked ways. First, massive human and economic losses + the Great Depression undermined faith in old liberal orders and helped extremist, totalitarian movements (fascism, Nazism, Stalinism) rise between wars. Second, the Versailles settlement and the interwar collapse showed that punitive peace and economic instability breed instability—lessons that shaped the post-1945 push for reconstruction (Marshall Plan) and welfare states. Third, WWII’s scale of violence (including the Holocaust) produced new norms about human rights and genocide and sped decolonization as empires weakened. Fourth, bipolar Cold War politics divided Europe (NATO vs. Warsaw Pact) but also encouraged transnational cooperation in the long run—European Coal and Steel Community → EU. Finally, total war changed everyday life: state power grew, science/technology advanced, and demographics shifted. These are common DBQ/LEQ angles (continuity/change, causation) on the AP exam—see the Topic 8.11 study guide for focused review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS). For practice questions, try Fiveable’s bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about the ideological conflicts between democracy, fascism, and communism?
Start your DBQ with a clear thesis that answers how democracy, fascism, and communism conflicted over the individual–state relationship (e.g., democracy = individual rights + limited state; fascism = subordination of individual to the nation/state; communism = collective ownership and strong state control). Contextualize briefly: post-WWI economic collapse, Weimar instability, Great Depression, rise of totalitarianism (CED KC-4.1, KC-4.2). Use at least four documents to support distinct claims: show one doc that supports democratic arguments (parliament, liberal reforms), one showing fascist ideology (Mussolini/Hitler propaganda, totalitarian keywords), one showing communist/state control (Bolshevik policies, collectivization), and one that shows overlap or reaction (appeasement, wartime measures). For two docs, explain POV/purpose (e.g., propaganda aims to legitimize state control). Add one outside fact (Treaty of Versailles, Great Depression, Marshall Plan, NATO) to earn the extra evidence point. Practice framing with comparison and causation; follow DBQ rubric: thesis, contextualization, use ≥4 docs, sourcing for ≥2, outside evidence, complexity. For Topic 8.11 study guide see (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS). For extra practice, try questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the connection between economic problems and the rise of extreme political movements?
Economic collapse often creates fertile ground for extreme politics because it breaks trust in existing institutions and raises stakes for survival. After WWI and during the Great Depression, hyperinflation, mass unemployment, and cuts to welfare undermined democracies (e.g., Weimar Republic), so many people turned to ideologies that promised quick, total solutions—fascism, Nazism, or revolutionary communism (CED KC-4.2, keywords: Weimar Republic, Great Depression, fascism, Soviet Union). Leaders used propaganda and mass mobilization to link personal economic despair to national humiliation, offering strong-state answers and redefining the individual–state relationship (totalitarianism, propaganda). For the AP exam, be ready to cite specific crises (1920s–30s unemployment, Versailles pressures) and explain causation and continuity/change (use KC-4.1–4.4). Review Topic 8.11 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to practice DBQ/LEQ evidence.
How did science and technology both help and hurt society during this period?
Science and technology in this era were double-edged. On the positive side, breakthroughs (antibiotics, vaccines, mass production, improved transportation, radio and later TV) raised standards of living, sped mobilization and medical care, and enabled wartime logistics and reconstruction. On the negative side, industrialized science scaled up destruction: chemical agents in WWI, mechanized artillery, strategic aerial bombing, and the atomic bomb caused unprecedented civilian suffering (KC-4.1, KC-4.4). Intellectually, “progress” was complicated: pseudo-science and state-driven science (eugenics, Lysenkoism) distorted objective knowledge and justified totalitarian policies (KC-4.3.II). Propaganda technologies also shaped public consent, changing individual–state relationships (KC-4.2). For AP essays, connect these examples to continuity/change and show causation or consequences—use contextualization and specific evidence. More examples and study help are in the Topic 8.11 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS). Practice applying this with Fiveable’s practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I missed class - what does "polarized state order during the Cold War" actually mean?
“Polarized state order” means Europe and the wider world were split into two opposing blocs after WWII: the United States and its democratic, capitalist allies (NATO, Marshall Plan) versus the Soviet Union and its communist allies (Warsaw Pact). That division was political, military, economic, and ideological—contests over democracy vs. communism shaped foreign policy (containment), arms buildups (nuclear standoff), and proxy conflicts. It replaced the chaotic interwar years with a stable but tense bipolar system that limited some state behavior (bloc loyalty) and pushed others toward transnational solutions (European Coal and Steel Community, later EU). For the AP exam, this is useful context for CCOT or causation essays and short answers—connect it to keywords like NATO, Marshall Plan, Soviet Union, welfare state, and efforts at transnational union (see the Topic 8.11 study guide for a concise review) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS). Want practice questions on this? Check Fiveable’s practice bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did traditional social patterns break down so much in the 20th century?
Traditional social patterns broke down in the 20th century because total war, economic collapse, and radical ideologies upended who had power and how people lived. World War I and II mobilized millions, blurred class lines, and produced mass casualties that weakened old elites; the Great Depression discredited liberal laissez-faire and opened the door to new state solutions (welfare states, planned economies). Fascism, Nazism, and communism redefined the relationship between individual and state, using propaganda and mass parties to replace local, religious, and class-based loyalties. Rapid urbanization, demographic shifts, and scientific-technological change also altered everyday life and gender roles (more women in workplaces). These forces combined to create instability in the first half of the century and a polarized Cold War order after—exactly the developments the CED emphasizes (KC-4.1–4.4). Use these causes and examples as evidence in DBQs/LEQs and short-answer responses (connect context and causation). For a helpful topic summary, see Fiveable’s study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/continuity-changes-age-global-conflict/study-guide/FqPuhNcFOvueS77qm7lS) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).