Challenging the Old World
From 1450 to 1815, Europe underwent a seismic intellectual and cultural transformation. The rediscovery of classical texts during the Renaissance, the empirical advancements of the Scientific Revolution, and the rational philosophies of the Enlightenment all challenged traditional sources of authority—namely the Catholic Church, monarchies, and ancient knowledge.
Together, these movements laid the groundwork for modern science, democratic governance, secularism, and the growth of European national identities.
From Humanism to Heliocentrism: A Shift in Worldview
Renaissance Humanism as the Catalyst
- Renaissance scholars turned to ancient Greek and Roman texts, emphasizing human reason, individual potential, and secular learning.
- Thinkers like Petrarch and Erasmus inspired intellectual curiosity, which laid the foundation for future scientific and philosophical inquiry.
The Scientific Revolution (16th–17th Century)
Building on Renaissance ideals, scientists began using observation, experimentation, and mathematics to understand the world—rejecting unproven Church teachings and classical assumptions.
Key examples include:
- Copernicus proposed the Heliocentric Theory, upending geocentric models upheld by the Church.
- Galileo Galilei used the telescope to support heliocentrism and advocated for evidence-based science—later silenced by the Inquisition.
- Isaac Newton formulated the Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation, merging astronomy and physics through mathematics.
- William Harvey studied human anatomy and circulation, disproving ancient medical beliefs rooted in Galen’s humoral theory.
These discoveries were not just scientific—they were revolutionary acts of intellectual independence.
The Enlightenment: Reason as a Tool for Reform
Emerging in the 18th century, the Enlightenment expanded the logic of the Scientific Revolution to politics, religion, and society. Thinkers, or philosophes, challenged traditional hierarchies and called for a rational reordering of human life.
New Political and Social Ideas
- John Locke argued for natural rights (life, liberty, property) and government by consent.
- Voltaire promoted religious tolerance and criticized clerical power.
- Montesquieu introduced checks and balances through the separation of powers.
- Rousseau described the social contract, arguing for popular sovereignty.
These ideas undermined the legitimacy of absolutist monarchs and state-sponsored religion, offering an intellectual framework for revolutionary change.
Disseminating New Ideas
Despite censorship, Enlightenment ideas spread widely through new print culture and social venues:
- Printing Press & Pamphlets: Enabled the rapid spread of radical ideas across Europe.
- Salons & Coffeehouses: Hosted by elite women or open to the middle class, these became key forums for public debate and civic engagement.
- The Encyclopédie: Edited by Denis Diderot, this Enlightenment-era reference compiled scientific, philosophical, and political knowledge for widespread access.
This intellectual exchange helped form the first modern conception of public opinion, an important precursor to democratic participation.
Changing Demographics and Daily Life
The Enlightenment did not only alter how people thought—it also influenced how they lived.
Population Growth and Urbanization
- Improved sanitation, medicine, and agricultural output led to lower child mortality and longer life expectancy.
- Smallpox inoculations, popularized by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, drastically reduced deaths.
- Urbanization accelerated as surplus agricultural labor moved to growing cities.
Economic and Family Shifts
- A consumer revolution emerged, particularly among the middle class, as people purchased textiles, books, mirrors, and decorative items.
- ==Family structures began to shift from large, multi-generational households to nuclear families with fewer children.==
💡 These changes reflected a new focus on individualism, privacy, and domestic life—values tied closely to Enlightenment philosophy.
Religious Skepticism and Tolerance
The Enlightenment challenged long-standing religious doctrines:
- Deism, promoted by Voltaire and others, saw God as a detached creator, not an active force in daily life.
- Skepticism questioned the authority of miracles, divine revelation, and the Church itself.
- Natural religion emphasized morality derived from reason and nature rather than scripture.
Many states began to separate Church and state and granted religious toleration, particularly in Protestant lands. Still, resistance remained, especially in Catholic-dominated regions.
Continuities and Limits
While Enlightenment ideals flourished, social inequalities persisted.
- Most Enlightenment thinkers did not advocate for women’s rights or universal suffrage.
- Slavery and colonialism continued, often justified by pseudo-scientific ideas of racial hierarchy.
- Monarchs like Catherine the Great and Frederick the Great implemented reforms but preserved autocratic rule—earning the title “Enlightened Despots.”
Conclusion: The Enlightenment’s Lasting Impact
The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment were foundational to the modern world. They shifted European thought from divine revelation to reason and evidence, reshaped governments and economies, and sowed the seeds of revolution in both Europe and the Americas.
💡 The Enlightenment did not end the old order overnight, but it sparked the ideas that would dismantle it over time.
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolutism | A system of government in which a monarch holds complete power and authority, unchecked by laws, institutions, or representative bodies. |
| commercial revolution | The expansion of trade, commerce, and market-based economic activity in Europe during the early modern period, transforming economic structures and social life. |
| empiricism | The philosophical approach that knowledge is derived from sensory experience and observation rather than from innate ideas or authority. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| mercantilism | An economic theory and practice that emphasized national wealth accumulation through trade surpluses, colonial expansion, and government regulation of commerce. |
| natural religion | A religious perspective based on reason and observation of the natural world rather than on revelation or religious doctrine, emphasizing universal principles accessible to all people. |
| rationalism | The philosophical emphasis on human reason and logical thinking as the primary means of understanding the world and solving problems. |
| religious toleration | The acceptance of different religious beliefs and practices, allowing individuals freedom of conscience and worship without persecution. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| skepticism | The philosophical attitude of questioning and doubting established beliefs and authorities, demanding evidence and rational justification. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the Scientific Revolution and when did it happen?
The Scientific Revolution was a major shift in how Europeans studied nature (roughly mid-1500s to the late 1600s). Think new reliance on observation, experimentation, mathematics, and the scientific method instead of only classical or religious authority. Key figures: Copernicus (heliocentrism), Galileo (telescopic evidence and experimental methods), Descartes (rationalism), and Newton (laws of motion and universal gravitation). It changed ideas about the cosmos, nature, and the human body (CED KC-1.1.IV) and set up the intellectual tools the Enlightenment used—empiricism, skepticism, and reason—to challenge political and social order (CED KC-2.3). For AP prep, you should be able to explain how these shifts challenged authority and connect scientists/philosophers to broader political or cultural effects on exams (Unit 4 LO I). Review the Topic 4.7 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the difference between the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment?
The Scientific Revolution (c. 16th–17th c.) was a change in how people studied the natural world: thinkers like Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, and Descartes used observation, experimentation, mathematics, and the scientific method to challenge classical (Aristotelian/Ptolemaic) ideas—e.g., heliocentrism and new anatomy (CED KC-1.1.IV). The Enlightenment (mainly 18th c.) took those methods and ideals—empiricism, skepticism, reason—and applied them to human society: politics, law, religion, and economics. Philosophes (Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu) debated natural rights, deism, toleration, separation of powers, and pushed ideas through salons, the Encyclopédie, and print culture (CED KC-2.3). They overlap: Enlightenment confidence in reason built on Scientific Revolution practices, but SR focused on nature; the Enlightenment focused on reforming government and society. On the AP exam expect SAQs/LEQs/DBQs that ask about causes, effects, and how these movements challenged European order (see Topic 4.7 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf). For more review and 1,000+ practice questions go to the Unit 4 page (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4) and practice hub (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did people start questioning the Catholic Church's teachings about science?
People began questioning the Catholic Church’s scientific teachings because new methods and evidence didn’t match traditional authorities. Think: Renaissance rediscovery of Greek and Roman texts plus better observation and math (Copernicus, Galileo, Newton) showed that heliocentrism and laws of motion fit data better than geocentric, Aristotelian ideas (KC-1.1.IV). The scientific method and empiricism promoted skepticism about claims based solely on Scripture or church tradition (KC-2.3.I). Print culture and societies like the Royal Society spread results and debate, so ideas reached more people (KC-2.3.II). Political and intellectual changes during the Enlightenment pushed reason into religion and government, encouraging people to test beliefs rather than accept them on authority (deism, philosophes). For AP review, this ties to Unit 4 Learning Objective I—explain how the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment challenged Europe (see the Topic 4.7 study guide for a clear summary) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf). For more practice, try Fiveable’s AP practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did the Scientific Revolution challenge the existing social order in Europe?
The Scientific Revolution undermined the old social order by shifting authority from tradition and the Church to observation, experiment, and reason (heliocentrism, the scientific method, empiricism—think Copernicus, Galileo, Newton). When knowledge became testable and public (Royal Society, journals), elites who’d based power on religious or birthright claims saw their monopoly weakened. That opened space for Enlightenment philosophes (Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire) to apply reason to politics and society—promoting natural rights, religious toleration (deism), and critiques of absolutism and mercantilism. New print culture, salons, and the Encyclopédie spread these ideas to broader publics, encouraging merit-based authority and demands for reform. For the AP exam, practice explaining causation and continuity/change: show how scientific methods led to secular political arguments and changed institutions (use contextualization and specific evidence for DBQs/LEQs). For a focused review, check the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf); for more practice, see Unit 4 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4) and 1,000+ practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What caused Enlightenment thinkers to believe so much in human reason?
They trusted human reason because the Scientific Revolution showed it worked. Empiricists like Bacon and Newton used observation, experiment, and math to explain nature (heliocentrism, Newtonian laws), so thinkers believed systematic reason could reveal truth about humans and society. Enlightenment philosophes (Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu) applied empiricism and skepticism to politics, religion, and law, arguing for natural rights, toleration, and checks on power. Print culture, salons, coffeehouses, the Royal Society, and the Encyclopédie spread ideas widely, making reason public and practical (CED KC-1.1 and KC-2.3). That’s why Enlightenment thought challenged absolutism and traditional faith and appears on AP exam prompts about causation and intellectual change. For a focused review, see the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf); for broader Unit 4 review and 1,000+ practice questions, check (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4) and (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I'm confused about how observation and experimentation were different from what people did before - can someone explain?
Before the Scientific Revolution, many Europeans explained nature by appealing to ancient authorities (Aristotle, Galen) or religious texts and logical debate. Observation and experimentation changed that: empiricism meant you trusted sensory evidence and tested ideas against nature. Scientists like Galileo used careful observations (telescopic sightings) and controlled experiments (motion studies) instead of just arguing from books. Mathematics became a tool to describe results (Newton’s laws). Experimentation introduced repeatable procedures and measurements so claims could be checked and refined—that’s the core of the scientific method. This shift let knowledge come from tested evidence, not only tradition or authority, and it’s why Enlightenment thinkers applied reason to politics and religion. For AP Euro, you should connect empiricism and the scientific method to challenges to the old order (CED KC-1.1.IV, KC-2.3). Review Topic 4.7 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's empiricism and why was it so important during the Enlightenment?
Empiricism is the idea that knowledge comes from sensory experience—observation, experimentation, and evidence—rather than from tradition, authority, or pure reason alone. During the Enlightenment it mattered because thinkers (like John Locke and members of the Royal Society) applied empirical methods from the Scientific Revolution to human society, politics, and religion. That shift encouraged skepticism of received authority (churches, monarchs), promoted natural religion and toleration, and helped philosphes develop new political theories that challenged absolutism and mercantilism. For AP Euro, empiricism ties directly to KC-1.1 and KC-2.3: it’s a causal link showing how scientific methods led to reason-centered critiques of social and political order. On the exam, expect questions asking you to explain causation (short-answer or LEQ/DBQ)—use examples like Locke, Newton, and the Royal Society to show how observation → new ideas → political change. Review Topic 4.7 on Fiveable for a focused study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf) and practice more questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did new ideas about science lead to new ideas about government and politics?
New scientific methods—observation, experimentation, and the search for natural laws (think Newton, Galileo, Bacon)—changed how people thought about truth. If nature followed discoverable laws, Enlightenment thinkers argued, human society could too. Empiricism and reason led philosophers like John Locke to claim rights (life, liberty, property) were “natural” and that governments exist by consent (social contract). Montesquieu used rational analysis to argue for separation of powers; Voltaire pushed religious tolerance based on skeptical inquiry and deism. Print culture, salons, the Royal Society, and the Encyclopédie spread these ideas, challenging absolutism and mercantilist justifications for inherited authority. For AP tasks (short answers, DBQs, LEQs), link scientific ideas (scientific method, empiricism, heliocentrism) to political concepts (natural rights, reform, limits on power) and use specific thinkers as evidence. For a focused review, see the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the main consequences of people reading Enlightenment books and pamphlets?
Reading Enlightenment books and pamphlets spread key ideas—empiricism, reason, natural rights, deism—into new public venues (salons, coffeehouses, print) and challenged traditional authority (church, absolutist rulers). That had several main consequences: people questioned divine-right monarchy and mercantilism and began demanding legal rights, religious toleration, and representative reforms; new political and economic theories (Locke, Montesquieu, physiocrats) fed reformist and revolutionary movements (e.g., American and French contexts); the growth of a literate public created a “public sphere” where philosophes and the Encyclopédie shaped debate; and everyday life changed as elites and middling groups adopted secular, rational attitudes. On the AP exam this shows up under causation and KC-2.3—use these links for focused review (topic study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf) and for practice Qs (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Did the Scientific Revolution actually help regular people or just rich educated ones?
Short answer: at first the Scientific Revolution mostly helped rich, educated people—scholars, court physicians, and state-backed institutions (e.g., Royal Society) who could use observation, experimentation, and mathematics. New knowledge (Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, scientific method) challenged elites’ worldviews and fueled Enlightenment debate (KC-1.1, KC-2.3). But by the 18th century ordinary people began to benefit too: improved farming techniques, better medical practices, and new technologies slowly raised living standards and changed everyday life (KC-2.4). Enlightenment print culture (Encyclopédie, salons) and popular venues spread ideas beyond elites, creating broader impacts on law, toleration, and politics. For the AP exam, this is a classic causation/continuity question—you can argue short-term elite gains vs. longer-term popular effects in an SAQ or LEQ. Review Topic 4.7 study guide for evidence and examples (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about how the Enlightenment challenged traditional authority?
Start with a tight thesis that answers how the Enlightenment challenged traditional authority (e.g., “Enlightenment ideas of reason, empiricism, and natural rights undermined church and monarchical claims to absolute power by promoting secular laws, religious toleration, and constitutional limits”). Briefly contextualize: Scientific Revolution methods (Newton, Galileo, scientific method) + Enlightenment philosophes (Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire) moved debate from divine right to reason and consent. Use at least four documents to support claims: cite examples showing critique of religion (deism, calls for toleration), critiques of absolutism (Montesquieu’s separation of powers), new public venues/print (Encyclopédie, salons), and economic/political challenges to mercantilism. Provide one extra outside fact (e.g., Enlightened absolutism or legal reforms like religious toleration in some states). For two docs, explain POV/purpose (who benefits from claiming reason over faith?). Show complexity: acknowledge limits—elite focus, continued influence of tradition. For more topic review and document practice, check the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf) and 1000+ practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the connection between questioning religious authority and questioning political authority?
Questioning religious authority in the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment set the intellectual stage for questioning political authority. As thinkers like Galileo, Newton, and Descartes promoted observation, empiricism, and skepticism, people learned to doubt received truths and rely on reason (CED KC-1.1; KC-2.3). Philosophes (Voltaire, Montesquieu, Locke) applied that same rational critique to government: divine-right monarchy, absolutism, and mercantilist policies were examined and found unjust or inefficient. Religious critiques opened space for concepts like natural religion, toleration, and rights, which translated into political ideas—social contract, separation of powers, and limits on rulers—challenging the existing European order (CED KC-2.3.I, KC-2.3.III). On the AP exam, use this causation chain—science → Enlightenment ideas → political challenge—in DBQs/LEQs to show how intellectual change produced political change. For a clear study-review, see the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why didn't everyone accept these new scientific ideas right away?
New scientific ideas didn’t catch on instantly because they threatened long-standing authorities, ways of knowing, and people’s safety. Heliocentrism and new methods (empiricism, the scientific method) contradicted Church teachings and classical authorities—so clergy, universities, and many rulers resisted to protect social order and religion. Access mattered: printed science spread, but literacy, education, and membership in groups like the Royal Society were limited, so most people didn’t encounter or trust the new evidence. Some scientists (Galileo) faced punishment, which made others cautious. Also, new ideas often required new instruments, math, and time-consuming experiments, so results weren’t obvious to everyone. Finally, Enlightenment philosophes applied these ideas to politics and religion, creating political backlash that slowed acceptance. For exam work, practice explaining these layered causes (religious, social, intellectual, technological) in short answers and DBQs—see the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf) and try related practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did coffeehouses and salons help spread Enlightenment ideas?
Coffeehouses and salons were key "new public venues" that helped spread Enlightenment ideas by creating spaces where people exchanged news, books, and arguments outside church and court control. Coffeehouses (more mixed, often male) circulated newspapers, scientific reports, and results from groups like the Royal Society, promoting empiricism and the scientific method. Salons (hosted by women aristocrats or bourgeois hostesses) gathered philosophes, writers, and nobles to debate reason, natural religion, and political ideas—feeding projects like the Encyclopédie and critiques of absolutism and mercantilism. Both fostered skepticism, helped popularize classical sources and Newtonian science, and turned private thought into public discussion—exactly the spread-of-ideas process the AP CED highlights (KC-2.3.II; keywords: philosophes, Encyclopédie, empiricism). On the exam, you can use coffeehouses/salons as evidence in SAQs, DBQs, or LEQs to show how Enlightenment ideas moved from elite circles into broader public culture. For a quick refresher, check the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf) and grab practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the long-term effects of people starting to think more rationally about religion and government?
Thinking more rationally about religion and government had big, lasting effects. People began to question church authority and demand religious toleration (deism, natural religion), which slowly pushed Europe toward secularization and limits on clerical power. Politically, Enlightenment ideas—natural rights, the social contract, separation of powers (Locke, Montesquieu)—challenged absolutism and inspired new models: constitutionalism, enlightened absolutism, and ultimately revolutionary movements (American, French) that reshaped states. New public venues (salons, the Encyclopédie) and print culture spread these ideas, so change wasn’t just elite—it altered public opinion and policy. On the AP exam, this fits KC-2.3 (reason challenging social order) and is useful for causation and contextualization in DBQs/LEQs. For a focused review, see the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/causation-age-scientific-revolution/study-guide/VjtEsB3vNBqPLceLgbNf) and more unit resources (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4). Practice questions: (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).