The end of World War II brought with it renewed hope for global peace, symbolized by the founding of the United Nations in 1945. However, even as colonial empires crumbled and Europe began to rebuild, nationalist and separatist movements re-emerged (sometimes peacefully, but often violently). These movements frequently ignited ethnic tensions and, in extreme cases, resulted in mass atrocities and ethnic cleansing.
Nationalism and Separatist Movements
In the decades following WWII, numerous ethnic and regional groups began pushing for greater autonomy, cultural recognition, or full sovereignty. Many former colonies gained independence, but within Europe itself, tensions between ethnic groups led to separatist movements that disrupted national unity.
Key Examples of Postwar Nationalism and Separatism:
- Ireland: Irish nationalists, particularly in Northern Ireland, resisted British rule through both political and violent means (e.g., The Troubles). A peace agreement was only reached with the Good Friday Agreement (1998).
- Chechnya (Russia): A federal region in the North Caucasus, Chechnya launched two wars (1994–1996 and 1999–2009) in pursuit of independence from Russia. These wars saw brutal crackdowns by Russian forces and widespread reports of human rights violations, including torture, mass civilian casualties, and forced displacement.
- Flemish Movement (Belgium): In Flanders, the Dutch-speaking region of Belgium, the Flemish separatist movement pushed for more autonomy. Cultural and linguistic differences from the French-speaking Wallonia fueled calls for increased control over taxation, education, and local governance.
- India and Indochina: Both sought independence from imperial powers (Britain and France), becoming models for postwar decolonization efforts across Asia and Africa.
⭐ Separatism vs. Nationalism: While nationalism typically promotes unity and identity within a nation, separatism seeks to break away from an existing political entity to form a new one based on ethnicity, language, or culture.
Ethnic Conflict and Mass Atrocities
Nationalist sentiments sometimes turned violent, especially when combined with ethnic or religious animosities. These tensions gave rise to ethnic cleansing—the systematic removal, persecution, or extermination of minority groups to create ethnically homogeneous regions.
Ethnic Cleansing is the deliberate and systematic removal of an ethnic or religious group from a given territory, often through violence, terror, or forced migration. It is a violation of international law and considered a crime against humanity.
Notable Examples of Ethnic Cleansing and Mass Atrocities:
- The Holocaust (1941–1945): Nazi Germany’s state-sponsored genocide of 6 million Jews and millions of others, including Romani people, disabled individuals, and political dissidents.
- Armenian Genocide (1915–1917): The Ottoman Empire forcibly removed and massacred 1.5 million Armenians, an act recognized by many historians and governments as genocide.
- Expulsion of Ethnic Germans (Post-1945): After WWII, approximately 12 million ethnic Germans were expelled from Eastern European countries (e.g., Poland, Czechoslovakia) in retaliation for Nazi atrocities.
- Yugoslav Wars (1990s): As the country disintegrated, ethnic tensions exploded into violence:
- Bosnian Genocide (1992–1995): Bosnian Serb forces committed genocide against Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks), notably in Srebrenica.
- Kosovo Conflict (1998–1999): Albanian Muslims in Kosovo were targeted by Serbian forces in another campaign of ethnic cleansing.
| Atrocity | Perpetrators | Victims | Region | Time Period |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| The Holocaust | Nazi Germany | Jews, Roma, others | Central & Eastern Europe | 1941–1945 |
| Armenian Genocide | Ottoman Empire | Armenians | Anatolia | 1915–1917 |
| Expulsion of Ethnic Germans | Postwar Eastern Europe | German-speaking minorities | Poland, Czechoslovakia | 1945–1947 |
| Bosnian Genocide | Bosnian Serbs | Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks) | Bosnia & Herzegovina | 1992–1995 |
| Kosovo Conflict | Serbian forces | Albanian Muslims | Kosovo | 1998–1999 |
⭐ International Response: In the 1990s, the United Nations and NATO began taking more active roles in humanitarian intervention. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was created to prosecute war crimes in the Balkans.
Conclusion
While postwar Europe saw efforts toward unity, peace, and human rights, nationalist and separatist movements periodically challenged those goals. Ethnic identity—when weaponized—became a source of division and violence, contributing to some of the most devastating atrocities of the modern era. The legacy of these conflicts continues to shape European politics and identity today.
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| ethnic cleansing | The forced removal or extermination of an ethnic group from a territory, often involving violence, displacement, and systematic persecution. |
| ethnic conflict | Violent or political tensions between different ethnic or cultural groups, often rooted in competition for resources, power, or recognition. |
| Genocide | The deliberate and systematic destruction of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. |
| mass atrocities | Large-scale violent acts committed against civilian populations, often involving systematic killing, torture, or other severe human rights violations. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements driven by the desire of people sharing a common identity, language, or culture to establish independent nation-states or assert national sovereignty. |
| separatist movements | Political movements seeking to withdraw a region or group from an existing state to form an independent nation or autonomous region. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is ethnic cleansing and how is it different from genocide?
Ethnic cleansing is a campaign to make an area ethnically homogeneous by forcibly removing a population—through intimidation, deportation, forced displacement, and often violence. Genocide is a legal term (UN Genocide Convention) that means intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group—by killing members, causing serious harm, or imposing conditions to bring about the group’s physical destruction. Key difference: ethnic cleansing focuses on removing a group from a territory; genocide focuses on destroying the group itself. In post–Cold War Europe, the Balkans show both: policies labeled “ethnic cleansing” targeted Bosnian Muslims for expulsion, while the Srebrenica massacre was legally judged genocide by the ICTY (see Slobodan Milošević, Karadžić, Mladić). For AP Euro (Topic 9.5 / KC-4.1.V and KC-4.2.V.D.ii), you should be able to explain causes, effects, and legal distinctions. Review the Topic 9.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to prep.
Why did so many nationalist movements start after World War II ended?
After WWII lots of nationalist movements popped up because the war broke old orders and left unresolved ethnic tensions. Mass displacements, boundary changes, and memories of wartime crimes made groups push for self-determination. Communist regimes often suppressed ethnic identities for decades, so when the Cold War loosened and the USSR declined, those suppressed nationalisms re-emerged—especially in central and eastern Europe (e.g., Yugoslavia → Bosnian and Kosovo conflicts, Srebrenica Massacre, leaders like Slobodan Milošević). Economic hardship, competition for resources, and political vacuum let separatist and extremist groups gain power, sometimes producing ethnic cleansing and mass atrocities (KC-4.1.V, KC-4.2.V.D.ii). For AP prep, you should be ready to explain these causes and effects on DBQs/LEQs (Unit 9 LO E) and use examples like the Dayton Accords and the ICTY. For a focused review check the Topic 9.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu), the Unit 9 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Can someone explain what happened in Bosnia in simple terms because I'm totally lost?
Bosnia (early 1990s) in simple terms: after Yugoslavia broke up, Bosnia was a mix of Bosniak (Muslim), Serb (Orthodox), and Croat (Catholic) communities. Serbian leaders (like Slobodan Milošević) and Bosnian Serb commanders (Radovan Karadžić, Ratko Mladić) pushed for a Greater Serbia and used ethnic cleansing—forced removal, terror, and mass murder—to carve Serb-only areas. The worst atrocity was the 1995 Srebrenica massacre (Bosnian Muslim men and boys killed), later ruled genocide by international courts. NATO forced peace with the 1995 Dayton Accords, and the ICTY prosecuted key leaders. For AP terms, this fits “new nationalisms,” ethnic conflict, ethnic cleansing, and mass atrocities (CED Topic 9.5). If you want a clear CED-aligned review, check the Topic 9.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu) and Unit 9 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9). For more practice, try the AP problems page (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What caused the ethnic conflict in the Balkans during the 1990s?
The Balkan wars of the 1990s grew from Yugoslavia’s collapse plus rising ethno-nationalism. After Tito’s death and weak centralized authority, republic leaders (notably Slobodan Milošević in Serbia) pushed new nationalisms, claiming historic rights and stoking fears about minorities. Economic decline, political vacuum, and competing territorial claims turned political disagreement into separatist movements. Ethnic tensions—especially among Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, and Kosovo Albanians—were amplified by propaganda and armed factions (e.g., the Kosovo Liberation Army). That mix produced ethnic cleansing and mass atrocities (Srebrenica, Bosnian genocide), leading to international responses (NATO air campaign, Dayton Accords, ICTY). This fits the CED’s KC-4.1.V and KC-4.2.V.D.ii causes of postwar ethnic conflict and genocide. For AP prep, link these causes to Learning Objective E and review the Topic 9.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu). Want extra practice? Try Fiveable’s AP Euro practice set (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about postwar nationalism and ethnic violence?
Start with a clear thesis that answers the prompt about postwar nationalism/ethnic violence (e.g., whether nationalism, state collapse, or international failure was the main cause). In your 15-minute reading period: read all documents, group them into 3–4 sets that support different claims (cause, effect, international response). For DBQ scoring remember you must: - Have a thesis/line of reasoning (1 pt), - Provide contextualization linking to post-1945 developments (ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, Kosovo, Chechnya; new nationalisms—use CED keywords like Srebrenica, Dayton Accords, ICTY) (1 pt), - Use at least four documents to support your argument and one outside fact (e.g., NATO air campaign, Bosnian Genocide) (2–3 pts), - Explain POV/purpose/situation for at least two documents (1 pt), - Show complexity (compare causes, note continuity/change, or show multiple effects) (1 pt). Practice organizing: intro with thesis, 2–3 evidence paragraphs using document groups + outside evidence, a sourced-analysis paragraph, and a short conclusion. For topic review use the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu), unit page (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9), and extra practice (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the difference between nationalist movements and separatist movements?
Nationalist movements and separatist movements overlap but aren’t the same. Nationalist movements promote a shared identity (language, history, culture) and seek greater political recognition, unity, or power for that nation—this can mean independence, autonomy, or influence within an existing state (think postwar new nationalisms in Central/Eastern Europe that fueled Balkan violence). Separatist movements specifically aim to break away from a state to form a new, independent political entity (ETA/Basque, Flemish autonomy efforts, Kosovo’s KLA). So: all separatists are often nationalist (they base separation on national identity), but not all nationalist movements demand separation—some want reform, rights, or autonomy inside the state. For AP Euro, link these distinctions to causes/effects of ethnic conflict and atrocities (Topic 9.5) in DBQs/LEQs—use examples like Chechnya, Bosnian ethnic cleansing, Basque separatism. Review the Topic 9.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu) and Unit 9 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did the IRA use violence in Ireland and what were they trying to achieve?
The IRA used violence because they saw it as a way to achieve Irish nationalism after decades of partition (1921) left a Protestant-majority Northern Ireland inside the UK while many Catholics faced discrimination in housing, jobs, and voting. From the late 1960s—during the Troubles—Republican groups (like the Provisional IRA) wanted to end British rule in Northern Ireland and reunify it with the Republic of Ireland. They carried out bombings, shootings, and sabotage to pressure the British government, undermine unionist control, and gain political leverage for negotiations. Their campaign also aimed to defend Catholic communities and provoke responses that would highlight injustices. In AP terms, the IRA is the illustrative example of nationalist and separatist violence in Topic 9.5 (postwar nationalism, ethnic conflict, atrocities). For the unit study guide see Fiveable’s Topic 9.5 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu). For extra practice, try Fiveable’s AP Euro practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What happened to Bosnian Muslims during the Yugoslav Wars?
During the Yugoslav Wars (1992–95), Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks) were targeted in a campaign of ethnic cleansing and mass atrocities driven by rising nationalism. Serb forces, backed politically by leaders like Slobodan Milošević and militarily by commanders such as Ratko Mladić and political leaders like Radovan Karadžić, forcibly expelled civilians, rounded up men for detention, and committed mass murder—most infamously the 1995 Srebrenica massacre (over 8,000 Bosniak men and boys). The violence aimed to create ethnically “pure” territories; many Bosniaks were displaced or killed. The 1995 Dayton Accords ended large-scale fighting and partitioned Bosnia, and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) later indicted and convicted several leaders for genocide and crimes against humanity. This episode is a key AP Topic 9.5 example of ethnic cleansing and postwar atrocities (see the Fiveable Topic 9.5 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu). For unit review, check Unit 9 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did the breakup of Yugoslavia lead to ethnic cleansing in Kosovo?
When Yugoslavia collapsed in the 1990s, rising ethnic nationalism—especially Serbian nationalism under Slobodan Milošević—pitted Serbs against non-Serb groups. In Kosovo, where a majority were ethnic Albanian Muslims, Belgrade responded to growing demands for autonomy and an insurgency by the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) with a campaign of repression. State security forces and allied paramilitaries carried out mass atrocities: forced expulsions, murder, and destruction of villages intended to remove Albanian civilians (ethnic cleansing). The KLA’s resistance and international outrage led to NATO’s 1999 air campaign and a UN administration of Kosovo; key figures were later tried by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. This fits AP Topic 9.5 goals: explain causes (nationalism, state collapse, leadership) and effects (ethnic cleansing, NATO intervention, ICTY trials). For the Fiveable Topic 9.5 study guide see (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu). More unit review: (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9). Practice questions: (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I don't understand why ethnic conflicts got worse after communism fell in Eastern Europe - can someone help?
When communism collapsed, long-dormant national and ethnic tensions resurfaced—because the regimes that had suppressed them (like Tito’s Yugoslavia or the USSR-backed states) were gone. That created a power vacuum, weakened state institutions, and crushed economic stability in the 1990s—perfect conditions for leaders (e.g., Slobodan Milošević) to mobilize “new nationalisms” and scapegoat minorities. In the Balkans this turned into ethnic cleansing and genocide (Bosnian Genocide, Srebrenica massacre, Kosovo 1998–99), producing wars that required international responses (Dayton Accords, ICTY, NATO air campaign). This fits the CED’s KC-4.1.V and KC-4.2.V.D.ii learning goals—explain causes/effects of post-WWII mass atrocities. If you want a focused review on examples and AP-style practice (great for DBQs/LEQs), check the Topic 9.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What are the main causes and effects of mass atrocities since World War II?
Main causes: breakdowns in multiethnic states after WWII (collapse of communist control, rising new nationalisms), political leaders using ethnic fear to mobilize support (e.g., Milošević), competing territorial claims and separatist movements, and weak international response early on. Triggers often included historical grievances, population displacements, and armed separatist groups (Kosovo Liberation Army, ETA). Effects: mass atrocities (ethnic cleansing, Bosnian genocide—Srebrenica), large refugee flows, long-term social trauma, dismantling of trust between groups, international intervention and new norms (NATO air campaign in Kosovo, Dayton Accords, ICTY prosecution of Karadžić/Mladić), and stronger global mechanisms for accountability. These developments are exactly what Topic 9.5 asks you to explain for the AP (Unit 9 LO E). For a focused study and examples, see the Topic 9.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How does the Basque ETA movement compare to other separatist groups like in Chechnya?
ETA (Basque) and Chechen separatists share roots in ethnic/nationalist demands but differ in scale, context, and outcomes. ETA (Spain, founded late 1950s) sought Basque independence and cultural rights under Franco and after; it used terrorism for decades but operated within a democratic European state that pursued policing, legal trials, and political solutions—ending armed campaign in 2011 and disbanding in 2018. Chechen separatism (late Soviet period → post-Soviet Russia) led to two large-scale wars (1990s–2000s) with massive civilian displacement and heavy Russian military response, producing prolonged ethnic conflict and human-rights abuses. For AP Topic 9.5, compare causes (nationalism, repression), methods (insurgency/terrorism vs. full-scale warfare), and international effects (regional instability, legal/tribunal responses). Practice framing this as a comparison on the exam (use causation and continuity/change). See the Topic 9.5 study guide for review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu) and unit resources (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9). For more practice, use Fiveable’s AP problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the long-term consequences of ethnic cleansing in the former Yugoslavia?
Ethnic cleansing in the former Yugoslavia produced long-term political, social, and legal consequences. Politically it redrew populations and helped create ethnically homogeneous enclaves (Bosnia, Kosovo), entrenched new nationalisms, and left “frozen” tensions across borders that complicate EU integration. Socially it caused massive displacement (hundreds of thousands), intergenerational trauma, and the loss of multiethnic communities. Legally and internationally it prompted new accountability mechanisms—the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), landmark prosecutions (Karadžić, Mladić), and debates over humanitarian intervention (NATO’s Kosovo air campaign, Dayton Accords ending Bosnian fighting). For AP Euro, use specific examples (Srebrenica massacre, Dayton Accords, ICTY, Kosovo War) as evidence for causes/effects essays or DBQs on postwar atrocities and nationalism (CED Topic 9.5 keywords). For a focused review, see the Topic 9.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu) and Unit 9 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9). Practice with related questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why do nationalist movements sometimes turn violent instead of staying peaceful?
Nationalist movements turn violent when peaceful options feel blocked or when leaders use fear and identity to mobilize people. Key causes: real or perceived grievances (discrimination, loss of land or rights), weak or collapsing states that can’t resolve disputes (e.g., Yugoslavia), radical elites who benefit from escalation (Milošević, Karadžić), competition over resources or territory, and outside support that encourages armed resistance (e.g., foreign backers). A “security dilemma” also happens: one group arms to feel safe, which makes others feel threatened and respond—escalation follows. When institutions for compromise (courts, power-sharing, autonomy) fail or are repressed, some groups conclude nonpeaceful means are the only way to achieve self-determination or survival. Study the Balkans (ethnic cleansing, Srebrenica) and ETA/Chechnya as CED examples to see these dynamics. For review, check the Topic 9.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/postwar-nationalism-ethnic-conflict-atrocities/study-guide/McAhpSNnN1mwuanR8VOu) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) for AP-style evidence and prompts.