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Table of Contents
Unit 9 Overview: Cold War and Contemporary Europe
9.1 Context of the Cold War and Contemporary Europe
9.2 Rebuilding Europe After World War II
9.3 The Cold War
9.4 Two Super Powers Emerge
9.5 Postwar Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Atrocities
9.6 Contemporary Western Democracies
9.7 The Fall of Communism
9.8 20th-Century Feminism
9.9 Decolonization
9.10 The European Union
9.11 Migrations within and to Europe Since 1945
9.12 Technological Developments Since 1914
9.13 Globalization
9.14 20th- and 21st-Century Culture, Arts, and Demographic Trends
9.15 Continuity and Change in the 20th and 21st Centuries

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9.5 Postwar Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Atrocities

Verified for the 2025 AP European History exam•Citation:

The end of World War II brought with it renewed hope for global peace, symbolized by the founding of the United Nations in 1945. However, even as colonial empires crumbled and Europe began to rebuild, nationalist and separatist movements re-emerged (sometimes peacefully, but often violently). These movements frequently ignited ethnic tensions and, in extreme cases, resulted in mass atrocities and ethnic cleansing.

Nationalism and Separatist Movements

In the decades following WWII, numerous ethnic and regional groups began pushing for greater autonomy, cultural recognition, or full sovereignty. Many former colonies gained independence, but within Europe itself, tensions between ethnic groups led to separatist movements that disrupted national unity.

Key Examples of Postwar Nationalism and Separatism:

  • Ireland: Irish nationalists, particularly in Northern Ireland, resisted British rule through both political and violent means (e.g., The Troubles). A peace agreement was only reached with the Good Friday Agreement (1998).
  • Chechnya (Russia): A federal region in the North Caucasus, Chechnya launched two wars (1994–1996 and 1999–2009) in pursuit of independence from Russia. These wars saw brutal crackdowns by Russian forces and widespread reports of human rights violations, including torture, mass civilian casualties, and forced displacement.
  • Flemish Movement (Belgium): In Flanders, the Dutch-speaking region of Belgium, the Flemish separatist movement pushed for more autonomy. Cultural and linguistic differences from the French-speaking Wallonia fueled calls for increased control over taxation, education, and local governance.
  • India and Indochina: Both sought independence from imperial powers (Britain and France), becoming models for postwar decolonization efforts across Asia and Africa.

⭐ Separatism vs. Nationalism: While nationalism typically promotes unity and identity within a nation, separatism seeks to break away from an existing political entity to form a new one based on ethnicity, language, or culture.

Ethnic Conflict and Mass Atrocities

Nationalist sentiments sometimes turned violent, especially when combined with ethnic or religious animosities. These tensions gave rise to ethnic cleansing—the systematic removal, persecution, or extermination of minority groups to create ethnically homogeneous regions.

Ethnic Cleansing is the deliberate and systematic removal of an ethnic or religious group from a given territory, often through violence, terror, or forced migration. It is a violation of international law and considered a crime against humanity.

Notable Examples of Ethnic Cleansing and Mass Atrocities:

  • The Holocaust (1941–1945): Nazi Germany’s state-sponsored genocide of 6 million Jews and millions of others, including Romani people, disabled individuals, and political dissidents.
  • Armenian Genocide (1915–1917): The Ottoman Empire forcibly removed and massacred 1.5 million Armenians, an act recognized by many historians and governments as genocide.
  • Expulsion of Ethnic Germans (Post-1945): After WWII, approximately 12 million ethnic Germans were expelled from Eastern European countries (e.g., Poland, Czechoslovakia) in retaliation for Nazi atrocities.
  • Yugoslav Wars (1990s): As the country disintegrated, ethnic tensions exploded into violence:
    • Bosnian Genocide (1992–1995): Bosnian Serb forces committed genocide against Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks), notably in Srebrenica.
    • Kosovo Conflict (1998–1999): Albanian Muslims in Kosovo were targeted by Serbian forces in another campaign of ethnic cleansing.
AtrocityPerpetratorsVictimsRegionTime Period
The HolocaustNazi GermanyJews, Roma, othersCentral & Eastern Europe1941–1945
Armenian GenocideOttoman EmpireArmeniansAnatolia1915–1917
Expulsion of Ethnic GermansPostwar Eastern EuropeGerman-speaking minoritiesPoland, Czechoslovakia1945–1947
Bosnian GenocideBosnian SerbsBosnian Muslims (Bosniaks)Bosnia & Herzegovina1992–1995
Kosovo ConflictSerbian forcesAlbanian MuslimsKosovo1998–1999

⭐ International Response: In the 1990s, the United Nations and NATO began taking more active roles in humanitarian intervention. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was created to prosecute war crimes in the Balkans.

Conclusion

While postwar Europe saw efforts toward unity, peace, and human rights, nationalist and separatist movements periodically challenged those goals. Ethnic identity—when weaponized—became a source of division and violence, contributing to some of the most devastating atrocities of the modern era. The legacy of these conflicts continues to shape European politics and identity today.

Key Terms to Review (13)

Albanian Muslims in Kosovo: Albanian Muslims in Kosovo are a significant ethnic and religious group primarily residing in the region of Kosovo, which has been a focal point of ethnic tensions and conflicts in the Balkans. The Albanian Muslim population, who identify primarily as ethnic Albanians, has experienced severe discrimination and violence, especially during the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s, marking a critical chapter in the narrative of mass atrocities since 1945.
Chechnya: Chechnya is a republic within the Russian Federation located in the North Caucasus region, known for its history of conflict and desire for independence. The struggle for Chechen autonomy and the violent response from the Russian government resulted in two brutal wars in the 1990s and early 2000s, highlighting issues of nationalism, ethnic conflict, and human rights abuses in the context of mass atrocities since 1945.
Ethnic Cleansing: Ethnic cleansing refers to the systematic and deliberate removal or extermination of a particular ethnic or religious group from a territory, often through violence, intimidation, and forced displacement. This term is closely linked to mass atrocities that have occurred since 1945, highlighting the brutal tactics used to achieve a perceived ethnic homogeneity in various regions around the world.
Expulsion of Ethnic Germans: The Expulsion of Ethnic Germans refers to the forced migration of millions of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe, particularly after World War II, as part of broader efforts to rearrange national boundaries and populations. This mass movement was characterized by violence, hardship, and significant loss of life, and it was a response to the shifting political landscape following the war, where nations sought to consolidate their territories and reduce ethnic tensions.
Flemish Separatist Movement: The Flemish Separatist Movement refers to the political and cultural movement in Belgium advocating for greater autonomy or independence for Flanders, the Dutch-speaking northern region of the country. This movement has roots in linguistic, cultural, and economic differences between Flanders and the French-speaking Walloon region, and it gained momentum in the late 20th century as a response to perceived marginalization within the Belgian state.
Genocide of Bosnian Muslims: The Genocide of Bosnian Muslims refers to the systematic mass killings, ethnic cleansing, and violence perpetrated against Bosniak Muslims during the Bosnian War from 1992 to 1995. This tragic event highlights the extreme consequences of nationalism and ethnic tensions in the Balkans, leading to significant international intervention and legal proceedings regarding crimes against humanity.
Holocaust: The Holocaust refers to the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and extermination of six million Jews and millions of others deemed undesirable by the Nazi regime during World War II. This horrific event is a stark reminder of the consequences of hatred, bigotry, and totalitarianism in the context of global conflicts and mass atrocities that have occurred throughout history.
India: India is a South Asian country known for its rich history, diverse culture, and significant impact on global events, particularly in the contexts of colonialism, independence movements, and contemporary geopolitical issues. The subcontinent has been a focal point for mass atrocities, imperial expansion, exploration, and decolonization efforts that have shaped not only its own identity but also influenced international relations.
Indochina: Indochina is a region in Southeast Asia that encompasses the countries of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. It has a complex history marked by colonialism, war, and mass atrocities, particularly during and after World War II, which resulted in profound social and political changes in the region.
Massacre Of Armenians: The Massacre of Armenians, also known as the Armenian Genocide, refers to the systematic extermination of 1.5 million Armenians by the Ottoman Empire during World War I, primarily between 1915 and 1922. This event is recognized as one of the first modern genocides, where the Ottoman government implemented a campaign of deportation, mass killings, and forced marches that resulted in widespread suffering and death among the Armenian population.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation or group, often advocating for self-determination and the sovereignty of nations. This sentiment grew significantly during the 19th and 20th centuries, influencing various movements, conflicts, and changes in political structures across Europe and beyond.
Separatism: Separatism is the advocacy for the separation of a certain group, often based on ethnicity, religion, or culture, from a larger political entity. This concept often arises in contexts where distinct groups seek greater autonomy or independence due to perceived oppression, cultural differences, or historical grievances. The dynamics of separatism can reflect broader themes of nationalism and identity in the 20th and 21st centuries, as well as the role it has played in mass atrocities since 1945.
United Nations: The United Nations (UN) is an international organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among countries. It aims to prevent conflict and promote human rights while addressing global challenges such as poverty, health, and education. The UN plays a critical role in international diplomacy and humanitarian efforts, especially in the context of post-war rebuilding and the Cold War.
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9.6 Contemporary Western Democracies