The aftermath of World War I created an environment ripe for the rise of fascist and totalitarian regimes. The bitterness stemming from the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles, coupled with economic instability, political uncertainty, and fears of communism, paved the way for radical ideologies to gain traction. Fascism, with its emphasis on nationalism, military power, and authoritarian leadership, emerged as a response to these crises. Authoritarian leaders used modern technology, propaganda, and promises of national renewal to gain support from disillusioned populations.
Factors Leading to the Development of Fascist and Totalitarian Regimes
Post-WWI Bitterness and the Failure of Democracies
- Treaty of Versailles: The harsh peace terms imposed on Germany after WWI, particularly the reparations and territorial losses, fueled resentment. This created fertile ground for nationalist and radical movements, especially in Germany, Italy, and Spain.
⭐ Economic Instability: The Great Depression of the 1930s further destabilized European democracies. Economic hardships, hyperinflation, and unemployment made many Europeans receptive to authoritarian leaders who promised stability and prosperity.
- Fear of Communism: The Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent spread of communism posed a threat to the established social order. In response, fascist leaders portrayed themselves as the bulwarks against communist revolution, appealing to the middle class and military elites.
- Weak Democratic Transitions: Many countries in Europe, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe, struggled to establish stable democratic governments after WWI. Weak, unpopular, and ineffective democratic institutions made it easier for totalitarian regimes to take control.
The Rise of Fascist Dictatorships
The Use of Propaganda
Fascist regimes, particularly in Germany, Italy, and Spain, relied heavily on propaganda to legitimize their rule and manipulate public opinion. Propaganda was used to unite the nation, define the "enemy," and indoctrinate the youth.
- Rallying the Nation: Fascist propagandists, especially in Germany, portrayed themselves as the saviors of their nations. They promised unity, economic recovery, and the restoration of national pride. Hitler’s rhetoric, particularly about the "National Community," resonated with Germans who felt humiliated by the defeat in WWI and the Treaty of Versailles.
- Defining the Enemy: Fascist propaganda often depicted Jews, communists, and other minorities as threats to the nation’s purity and survival. In Nazi Germany, anti-Semitic propaganda was central to the regime’s ideology, portraying Jews as the root cause of Germany’s problems.
- Indoctrinating the Youth: Fascist regimes targeted the younger generation, teaching them to revere the state and its leaders. In Nazi Germany, the Hitler Youth became an essential part of Nazi efforts to shape future generations into loyal fascists.
- Control of Media: In fascist states, the press was controlled to ensure only the official, state-approved narrative was disseminated. In Germany, for instance, Joseph Goebbels, as Minister of Propaganda, controlled newspapers, radio broadcasts, and films to ensure that Nazi ideology was embedded in the public consciousness.
Fascist Leadership and the Cult of Personality
Fascist regimes promoted a charismatic leader who was presented as the embodiment of national strength and unity. These leaders were often depicted as infallible figures who had a direct connection with the people, above and beyond democratic institutions.
- Benito Mussolini (Italy): Mussolini’s fascist government was established through the March on Rome in 1922. He portrayed himself as the savior of Italy, promising to restore the Roman Empire's glory and bring economic stability.
- Adolf Hitler (Germany): Hitler’s rise to power was characterized by his ability to manipulate public dissatisfaction with the Weimar Republic. He promised to restore German pride, eliminate the perceived threats of communism and Jews, and rebuild Germany’s military strength. Once in power, he dismantled democratic institutions and established a totalitarian state.
- Francisco Franco (Spain): Franco led a fascist coup during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and, with the support of Hitler and Mussolini, established a military dictatorship. His authoritarian rule lasted until his death in 1975.
Economic and Social Impact of Fascism
Economic Modernization under Fascism
Fascist regimes promoted economic modernization as a means to strengthen the state and ensure self-sufficiency. This often involved state control of key industries, the suppression of workers' rights, and the promotion of militarization.
- Italy and Germany: Both Mussolini and Hitler promoted state-run economies, focusing on large public works projects (like highways in Germany) and military expansion. These efforts helped reduce unemployment but also laid the groundwork for aggressive militarization that would lead to WWII.
- Soviet Union (Stalin): Joseph Stalin’s push for industrialization and collectivization in the Soviet Union was an example of a totalitarian regime attempting rapid economic modernization at any cost. Stalin’s Five-Year Plans emphasized heavy industry, but at great human cost, including famine, forced labor, and purges of political opponents.
Social Repression and Control
Fascist states aimed to control nearly all aspects of life. They used terror, surveillance, and social programs to enforce loyalty to the regime.
- Suppression of Political Opposition: Fascist regimes outlawed opposition parties and suppressed labor movements. In Germany, the Nazis banned trade unions and political parties that opposed them.
- Censorship and State Control: All forms of media, including films, literature, and newspapers, were censored to ensure they aligned with fascist ideals. In Nazi Germany, for example, films like Triumph of the Will were used to glorify the Nazi party and promote Hitler’s personality cult.
Stalin’s Totalitarian Rule in the Soviet Union
After Lenin’s death in 1924, Joseph Stalin took control of the Soviet Union. His leadership became synonymous with totalitarianism, marked by severe repression, purges, and the complete centralization of power.
- Economic Modernization: Stalin’s Five-Year Plans aimed to transform the Soviet Union from an agrarian society into an industrial power. These plans focused on heavy industry and collectivization of agriculture, which resulted in widespread famine, especially in Ukraine, and millions of deaths.
- The Great Purge: Stalin used terror to eliminate rivals within the Communist Party and to consolidate his power. The Great Purge of the late 1930s saw the execution and imprisonment of tens of thousands of perceived political enemies, including military leaders, intellectuals, and ordinary citizens.
- Gulags: Stalin created a network of forced labor camps, known as gulags, where millions of people were sent for real or perceived political crimes. Conditions in these camps were brutal, and many people died due to overwork, starvation, and harsh weather.
Fascism in Eastern Europe
After WWII, the rise of fascism was not limited to Germany, Italy, and Spain. Several Eastern European nations also experienced fascist or authoritarian regimes during the interwar period, often due to economic hardship, dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles, and the absence of effective democratic institutions.
- Hungary: Fascism took root in Hungary after World War I, and the country aligned itself with Nazi Germany during WWII. Hungary participated in the Holocaust, deporting hundreds of thousands of Jews to death camps.
- Romania: The Iron Guard, a fascist political movement, came to power in Romania in the 1930s. Although they lacked the economic power of Italy and Germany, they promoted extreme nationalism and anti-Semitism.
- Austria: Austria saw a rise in fascist sentiments with the creation of the Austrian Nazi Party. In 1938, Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany in the Anschluss, further solidifying the spread of fascist ideology in Europe.
Conclusion
The interwar period in Europe was dominated by the rise of fascism and totalitarian regimes that promised stability but delivered repression, war, and suffering. These regimes exploited economic instability, nationalist sentiment, and fear of communism to seize power. The consequences of fascist rule—especially in Nazi Germany and Stalinist Soviet Union—were catastrophic, leading to WWII and shaping the course of the 20th century. Fascism’s legacy is a reminder of the dangers of totalitarianism and the importance of safeguarding democracy and human rights.
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| authoritarian dictatorship | A system of government in which power is held by a single leader or small group with little regard for constitutional limits or democratic processes. |
| charismatic leaders | Political figures who attract followers through personal magnetism and appeal rather than through institutional authority, often used by fascist regimes to consolidate power. |
| collectivization | Stalin's policy of consolidating individual peasant farms into large state-controlled collective farms (kolkhozes) to increase agricultural production. |
| Communism | A political and economic ideology emphasizing collective ownership and state control that competed with democracy and fascism in 20th-century Europe. |
| cult of personality | A system of promoting and glorifying a leader through propaganda and ideology, making the leader appear infallible and worthy of absolute devotion. |
| democratic institutions | The systems, structures, and processes that support democratic governance, including representative legislatures, constitutional protections, and rule of law, which fascist regimes rejected and dismantled. |
| economic instability | A period of economic uncertainty, inflation, unemployment, and financial crisis that created conditions favorable to the rise of authoritarian movements in post-World War I Europe. |
| economic modernization | The process of transforming an economy through industrialization, technological advancement, and reorganization of production systems. |
| Fascism | An authoritarian political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, rejection of democracy, centralized autocratic government, and often the glorification of war and a charismatic leader. |
| Five Year Plan | Stalin's centralized economic program that set ambitious production targets for Soviet industry and agriculture over five-year periods. |
| Franco | Francisco Franco, Spanish military leader who led fascist forces during the Spanish Civil War and established an authoritarian dictatorship in Spain. |
| Great purges | Stalin's campaign of terror in the 1930s involving mass arrests, executions, and deportations of perceived political rivals and enemies of the state. |
| Gulags | Soviet labor camps where political prisoners and other perceived enemies of the state were imprisoned under brutal conditions. |
| Hitler | Adolf Hitler, German Nazi dictator who rose to power in 1933 by exploiting economic crisis and national humiliation, establishing a totalitarian fascist regime. |
| interwar period | The period between World War I (1918) and World War II (1939), characterized by political instability, economic crisis, and the rise of authoritarian regimes across Europe. |
| kulaks | Land-owning peasants in the Soviet Union who were targeted for liquidation during Stalin's collectivization policies. |
| Mussolini | Benito Mussolini, Italian fascist dictator who rose to power in 1922 by exploiting postwar discontent and established the first fascist totalitarian state in Europe. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| postwar bitterness | The widespread resentment and disillusionment among populations following World War I, stemming from economic hardship, national humiliation, and the failure of peace settlements to meet expectations. |
| propaganda | Systematic dissemination of information, often misleading or biased, designed to promote a particular political ideology or leader and manipulate public opinion. |
| secret police | A covert law enforcement agency used to suppress opposition and maintain state control through surveillance and intimidation. |
| Spanish Civil War | A conflict from 1936-1939 in Spain between fascist forces led by Franco and republican/leftist forces, which served as a testing ground for fascist military tactics and ideologies before World War II. |
| terror | The systematic use of violence, intimidation, and fear by authoritarian regimes to suppress opposition and maintain control over the population. |
| totalitarian rule | A system of government in which the state exercises complete control over all aspects of public and private life, eliminating individual freedoms and political opposition. |
| totalitarianism | A system of government that seeks to control all aspects of public and private life, using propaganda, terror, and modern technology to maintain absolute power over the state and its citizens. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is fascism and how is it different from regular dictatorship?
Fascism is a revolutionary, ultra-nationalist ideology that seeks total control of society through a single party, a charismatic leader, mass mobilization, and aggressive propaganda (think Mussolini and Hitler). It glorifies the nation and war, uses modern media and aesthetics (Goebbels, Riefenstahl, architecture, cult of personality), and relies on party militias (Blackshirts/Brownshirts) and terror to break democratic institutions. A “regular” dictatorship (authoritarian regime) may also be repressive and personalist, but it’s often less ideological and less totalizing: pluralism is limited but can survive in private life, mass mobilization and a state-wide cult are weaker, and the regime might not seek cultural control or constant propaganda. Totalitarian regimes (including Stalin’s USSR) aim to reshape society and economy (collectivization, Five-Year Plans) far more comprehensively than most authoritarian dictatorships. For AP exam prep, connect claims to examples (Mussolini, Hitler, Franco, Stalin) and the CED keywords; see the Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did fascism become so popular after World War I?
Fascism grew after WWI because it promised order, strength, and national revival at a time when many Europeans felt betrayed and scared. Massive postwar bitterness (lost territories, wounded pride), economic instability (hyperinflation, unemployment, Great Depression), and fear of communist revolution made radical alternatives attractive. Weak or new democracies (like the Weimar Republic) seemed unable to solve crises, so charismatic leaders—Mussolini and Hitler—used propaganda, mass rallies, radio, film, and a cult of personality (Goebbels, Riefenstahl) to win support. They also exploited violence and paramilitary groups (Blackshirts, Brownshirts), legal manipulation, and terror to weaken opponents and take power. Internationally, the Spanish Civil War showed fascist cooperation and Western democratic inaction, encouraging authoritarian moves elsewhere in central and eastern Europe. For quick review tied to the AP CED, see the Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe) and unit resources (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8). For practice, try the AP problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the difference between fascism and totalitarianism?
Fascism is a specific political ideology: extreme nationalism, glorification of the state and violence, rejection of liberal democracy, a charismatic leader, and mass mobilization (think Mussolini, Hitler; Brownshirts/Blackshirts, Goebbels, Riefenstahl). Totalitarianism is a broader form of rule: the state seeks total control of public AND private life through centralized planning, one-party rule, pervasive propaganda, secret police, purges, and suppression of rivals (think Stalin’s USSR with collectivization, Five-Year Plans, kulak liquidation, Great Purge, Gulags). They overlap: some fascist regimes (Nazi Germany) were totalitarian in practice; others were authoritarian without full social control. For AP Euro, use these distinctions when answering SAQs/LEQs/DBQs—cite ideology (fascism) vs. method/degree of control (totalitarianism). For more review, see the Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did Mussolini and Hitler actually come to power?
Both men rose by exploiting post-WWI bitterness, economic crisis, fear of communism, and weak democracies. Mussolini used paramilitary Blackshirts to intimidate opponents, built a mass party, and pressured elites; his 1922 “March on Rome” forced King Victor Emmanuel III to appoint him prime minister, after which he consolidated power with violence and censorship (KC-4.2.II.B). Hitler built the Nazi Party, used Brownshirts to terrorize rivals, and leveraged Weimar instability and hyperinflation to win votes; after the 1932 elections and Reichstag fire, he pushed the Reichstag to pass the Enabling Act (legal-rational veneer) and eliminated opposition, using propaganda, a cult of personality, and modern media (Goebbels, Riefenstahl) to secure total control (KC-4.2.II.A/B). For AP prep, connect these causes to CED key concepts and practice DBQ/LEQ skills—see the Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe) and unit review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8). For practice, try questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What was the Spanish Civil War and why didn't Britain and France help?
The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) was a struggle between the Republican government (a coalition of leftists, socialists, communists, anarchists) and Nationalist rebels led by Francisco Franco, who was backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. It became a testing ground for fascist tactics, air power, and international propaganda and ended with Franco’s authoritarian rule—exactly what the CED highlights (KC-4.2.II.C). Britain and France refused to intervene for several reasons: they adopted a Non-Intervention policy and led an international Non-Intervention Committee; both feared escalation into a wider war and were focused on appeasement of Germany; domestic politics—anti-war sentiment and political divisions—made intervention unpopular; and their militaries and economies were still strained after WWI and the Depression. Their inaction effectively allowed German and Italian support for Franco to tip the balance. Review this topic’s CED connections and practice short-answer/document skills on Fiveable’s Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe) and Unit 8 page (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8). For extra practice, try problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I'm confused about Stalin's economic policies - what were the Five Year Plans?
The Five Year Plans were Stalin’s centralized programs (starting 1928) to rapidly modernize the Soviet economy by setting strict production targets for industry, transport, and agriculture. They prioritized heavy industry (steel, coal, machinery), used state planning (Gosplan), and replaced market signals with quotas. To meet targets the state collectivized agriculture, eliminated the kulaks as a class, and enforced labor discipline through incentives, mobilization, and harsh punishments—which helped industrial output rise but caused shortages, low consumer goods, brutal working conditions, and devastating famines (notably in Ukraine). Politically, they reinforced totalitarian control (secret police, purges) by tying economic success to loyalty. For AP Euro, link this to Topic 8.6/Unit 8 Learning Objective I (consequences of Stalin’s policies) and use the Topic 8.6 study guide for review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe). Practice more with problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What happened to the kulaks and why did Stalin target them?
Stalin targeted the kulaks (better-off peasants) during forced collectivization because he saw them as a class enemy who resisted state control of agriculture and threatened rapid industrialization. From 1929 on, Soviet policy labeled kulaks as “counter-revolutionaries”: many had their land confiscated, were arrested or executed, and large numbers were deported to remote areas or sent to labor camps. Their removal helped the state seize grain to fund the Five-Year Plans but also contributed to chaotic production and the devastating famines—especially in Ukraine (Holodomor). The CED lists this as the “liquidation of the kulaks” tied to collectivization and Stalin’s centralized economic modernization (see Topic 8.6 and Unit 8). On the AP exam, use these facts as specific evidence for short-answer/DBQ/LEQ arguments about totalitarian control, economic policy, and human cost. For a quick review, check the Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did fascist propaganda work and what made it so effective?
Fascist propaganda worked by using modern mass media and visual culture to simplify messages, create emotional appeal, and tie loyalty to a single leader. Regimes (e.g., Nazi Germany under Goebbels) used radio, film (Leni Riefenstahl), grand architecture, rallies, posters, and school curricula to promote nationalism, glorify war, and build a cult of personality. Techniques: repeated slogans, scapegoating enemies, staged spectacles to show unity, and controlling information through censorship and secret police. It was effective because it exploited postwar fear, economic instability, and distrust of democracy—giving simple answers and a charismatic figure to trust (CED KC-4.2.II.A/B). For AP exam use: cite specific examples (radio, Goebbels, Riefenstahl, architecture, cult of personality) in short answers/essays and connect propaganda to broader causes of fascist rise. For a focused review, see the Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the Great Purges and how many people died?
The Great Purges (or Great Terror) were Stalin’s late-1930s campaign to eliminate perceived political enemies and “class” threats—party rivals, military officers, kulaks, intellectuals, and ordinary citizens—using show trials, forced confessions, NKVD arrests, executions, and mass deportations to the Gulag. It intensified state terror, reinforced the cult of personality, and helped enforce collectivization and Five-Year Plan goals by silencing dissent (CED keywords: Great Purge, Gulag, secret police, kulaks). How many died? Estimates vary. Most historians put executed victims during 1936–1938 at roughly 600,000–1.2 million. If you include deaths in the Gulag, deportations, and related repression, a common aggregate estimate is about 1.5–2 million victims; some broader estimates that factor in famines and wider repression go higher. Numbers aren’t exact because Soviet records were incomplete and politicized. For AP review, link this to Stalin’s totalitarian methods (terror, propaganda, purges) in Topic 8.6—see Fiveable’s Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did so many Eastern European countries become dictatorships after WWI?
After WWI many Eastern European states slid into dictatorships because of a mix of political, social, and economic pressures the CED highlights: huge postwar bitterness, economic instability (inflation, unemployment), fear of communist revolution after 1917, and weak or inexperienced democratic institutions. Fragile parliaments and polarized politics made strongman solutions attractive; authoritarian leaders promised order, national unity, and rapid modernization. They used modern propaganda, charismatic leadership, and repression (secret police, purges) to dismantle democratic checks—exactly the environment that helped fascist and totalitarian regimes rise (CED KC-4.2.II & II.D). Examples include interwar Poland, Hungary, and Romania. For AP prep, connect these causes to LO H (explain how postwar bitterness, fear of communism, and economic crisis promoted authoritarian rule) and practice writing short causal paragraphs like you’ll need on the SAQs and LEQ. For a quick review, see the Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe), the Unit 8 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8), and drill practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about the rise of fascism in Europe?
Start by reading the prompt carefully during the 15-minute DBQ reading period, then skim all 7 documents and group them into 2–3 categories (causes, methods, effects, or pro/anti-fascist). Write a clear thesis in your intro that answers the prompt and sets a line of reasoning. Include contextualization (post-WWI bitterness, economic instability, fear of communism, weak democracies—CED KC-4.2.II). Use at least four documents to support your argument, describe their content, and for two documents explain POV/purpose/audience or historical situation. Add one specific piece of outside evidence (e.g., March on Rome, hyperinflation in Weimar, Mussolini/Hitler tactics, Spanish Civil War aid) to earn the extra evidence point. Aim for complexity by acknowledging counterarguments or multiple causes (economic + political + cultural). Manage time: ~10–12 minutes planning, 35–40 minutes writing, 8–10 minutes revising. For topic review and more DBQ practice, see the Unit 8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the connection between economic problems and the rise of totalitarian governments?
Economic breakdowns made totalitarian movements believable and popular. After WWI and during the Great Depression, hyperinflation, mass unemployment, and lost savings created desperation that discredited fragile democracies (Weimar) and moderate parties. Fascist and communist leaders (Mussolini, Hitler, Stalin) exploited that economic instability with promises of order, jobs, and national revival, using propaganda, charismatic leadership, and terror to replace democratic institutions (CED KC-4.2.II, KC-4.2.I). Economic crisis also boosted fears of social revolution, so middle-class and elite support shifted toward authoritarian solutions. For the AP exam, remember to tie economic causes to political outcomes and to use specific examples (hyperinflation in Weimar, Great Depression, Five-Year Plans, collectivization) in SAQs/LEQs or DBQs. For topic review, see the Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe); for unit overview and practice questions, check Unit 8 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history). Fiveable’s study guides and practice questions can help you practice linking evidence to claims.
I don't understand how Stalin's policies caused famine in Ukraine - can someone explain?
Stalin’s policies caused the Ukrainian famine mainly through forced collectivization and brutal grain requisitioning. In 1929–33 the state pushed peasants onto kolkhozes (collective farms) as part of the Five-Year Plans to rapidly industrialize agriculture. Kulaks (better-off peasants) were "liquidated" as a class—deported, arrested, or exiled—which removed experienced farmers and destroyed local leadership. The government set unrealistically high grain quotas and seized harvests for urban supply and export; when quotas weren’t met, authorities still confiscated grain and banned movement from famine areas. Combined with chaotic implementation, lower peasant incentives, and poor harvests, this produced widespread food shortages in Ukraine (the Holodomor). The result was a devastating, man-made famine that the CED connects to collectivization, liquidation of kulaks, and Stalin’s rapid modernization (Unit 8, Learning Objective I). For a focused review, see the Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe). Practice AP-style questions: (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were gulags and how were they different from regular prisons?
Gulags were the Soviet system of forced-labor camps run by the secret police (NKVD) under Stalin. Unlike “regular” prisons that hold criminal offenders under a legal sentence, gulags combined incarceration with mandatory hard labor, extreme isolation (usually in Siberia or the Arctic), brutal living conditions, minimal food/medical care, and often arbitrary arrests for political reasons (e.g., kulaks, perceived enemies after collectivization or the Great Purge). They were a key tool of totalitarian control and economic modernization—prisoners were used for mines, logging, and construction. Millions passed through the camps, many dying from exhaustion, disease, or exposure. In AP Euro terms, gulags illustrate KC-4.2.I.E (liquidation of kulaks, purges, oppressive system) and are listed as an illustrative example in Topic 8.6. For more review on fascism/totalitarianism and Stalin’s policies, see the Unit 8 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Did fascist governments actually help their countries economically or just make things worse?
Short answer: it’s complicated—fascist regimes often produced short-term economic improvement but at big costs and mixed long-term results. After post-WWI crises and the Great Depression, leaders like Mussolini and Hitler used state-directed spending (public works, autarkic policies, and massive rearmament) to cut unemployment and stabilize economies. Stalin’s Five Year Plans achieved rapid industrial growth and forced collectivization that increased state control of production but caused famine, repression, and huge human loss. So economically: improvements in employment and infrastructure happened, but they relied on militarization, suppression of labor and markets, and coercion—undermining sustainable civil society and causing severe social costs. For AP Euro, connect these facts to Topic 8.6 (fascism/totalitarianism), KC-4.2.II and KC-4.2.I (Stalin) in essays/LEQs or DBQs. Review the Topic 8.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-8/fascism-totalitarianism/study-guide/VQVaBr0CgJX93gGI6iYe) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).