| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Age of Discovery | The period of European exploration and overseas expansion, driven by commercial and religious motives, resulting in encounters with indigenous populations. |
| classical texts | Ancient Greek and Roman literary, philosophical, and scientific works that were recovered and studied during the Renaissance, influencing European intellectual and cultural development. |
| commercial capitalism | An economic system based on trade, merchant activity, and the pursuit of profit through commerce that increasingly shaped European society in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| indigenous populations | Native peoples and societies encountered by Europeans during exploration and expansion, often subjected to conquest and conversion. |
| manor | A medieval agricultural estate that continued to structure rural life and production during the period of economic change. |
| overseas colonies | Overseas territories established and settled by European nations for commercial and religious purposes. |
| political centralization | The concentration of political power and authority in a central government, a process that occurred unevenly across European states in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| Renaissance | A cultural and intellectual movement from the 14th-17th centuries that challenged traditional ideas about education and women's roles in society. |
| scholarship | Academic study and research methods that were transformed by the revival of classical texts during the Renaissance. |
| secular systems of law | Legal systems based on civil authority rather than religious doctrine, which played a central role in the development of new political institutions in the early modern period. |
| sovereign state | A political entity with supreme authority over its territory and population, independent from religious or external control, central to early modern European political development. |
| visual arts | Artistic works such as painting and sculpture that incorporated Renaissance ideas and were used to promote personal, political, and religious goals. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural developments | Changes in farming practices, land use, and production methods in Europe during the period 1450-1648. |
| Bank of Amsterdam | A major financial institution established in the Dutch Golden Age that became a leading European banking center. |
| British East India Company | A trading company chartered by England that played a major role in European commercial expansion and colonial development. |
| capital accumulation | The gathering and concentration of wealth and resources that can be invested in economic expansion and development. |
| commercial developments | Economic changes and innovations in trade, banking, and finance that transformed European economies between 1450 and 1648. |
| commercialization of agriculture | The transformation of farming from subsistence production to market-oriented production for profit and trade. |
| craft guilds | Associations of skilled craftspeople that controlled production, training, and governance in urban trades and challenged by urban migrants. |
| double-entry bookkeeping | An accounting method that records each transaction in two accounts to maintain balanced financial records. |
| Dutch East India Company | A powerful trading company chartered by the Dutch that dominated European commercial expansion in Asia and the Indian Ocean. |
| economic elite | A new social class that gained wealth and power through commercial activities and trade, distinct from traditional land-holding nobility. |
| enclosure movement | The process of consolidating and privatizing agricultural land that had previously been held as common property in villages. |
| European marriage pattern | A demographic pattern in which Europeans delayed marriage and childbearing in response to economic and environmental challenges, restraining population growth. |
| free peasantry | Peasants who were not bound to the land through serfdom and had greater personal freedom and mobility. |
| freehold tenure | A form of land ownership where an individual owns the land outright with no obligations to a landlord. |
| Italian merchant princes | Wealthy and powerful merchant families in Italian city-states who accumulated economic and political influence through trade. |
| Little Ice Age | A period of climate cooling from the late 16th century onward that created economic and environmental challenges for European populations. |
| market economy | An economic system in which goods and services are produced and distributed through supply and demand in competitive markets rather than by state direction. |
| merchant elites | Wealthy merchants and traders who held significant economic and political power in urban centers. |
| money economy | An economic system based on the use of currency and financial instruments rather than barter or direct exchange of goods. |
| nobles of the robe | French nobility who gained status through administrative and judicial positions rather than through military service or ancient lineage. |
| price revolution | A period of significant and sustained increase in prices, particularly for agricultural commodities, during the 16th and early 17th centuries. |
| serfdom | A system of labor and land tenure in which peasants were bound to the land and owed obligations to noble landowners, codified in eastern Europe during this period. |
| subsistence agriculture | Farming primarily for the production of food to meet the needs of the farmer and their family, with little surplus for trade. |
| three-crop field rotation | An agricultural system used in northern Europe where three different crops were rotated across fields to maintain soil fertility. |
| two-crop rotation | An agricultural system used in the Mediterranean region where two different crops were alternated across fields. |
| village common | Land held collectively by a village community and used by villagers for grazing livestock and other shared purposes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Age of Discovery | The period of European exploration and overseas expansion, driven by commercial and religious motives, resulting in encounters with indigenous populations. |
| classical texts | Ancient Greek and Roman literary, philosophical, and scientific works that were recovered and studied during the Renaissance, influencing European intellectual and cultural development. |
| commercial capitalism | An economic system based on trade, merchant activity, and the pursuit of profit through commerce that increasingly shaped European society in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| indigenous populations | Native peoples and societies encountered by Europeans during exploration and expansion, often subjected to conquest and conversion. |
| political centralization | The concentration of political power and authority in a central government, a process that occurred unevenly across European states in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| Renaissance | A cultural and intellectual movement from the 14th-17th centuries that challenged traditional ideas about education and women's roles in society. |
| secular systems of law | Legal systems based on civil authority rather than religious doctrine, which played a central role in the development of new political institutions in the early modern period. |
| sovereign state | A political entity with supreme authority over its territory and population, independent from religious or external control, central to early modern European political development. |
| visual arts | Artistic works such as painting and sculpture that incorporated Renaissance ideas and were used to promote personal, political, and religious goals. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civic humanist culture | A Renaissance intellectual movement in Italian city-states that applied classical Greek and Roman political ideas to contemporary civic life and governance. |
| classical texts | Ancient Greek and Roman literary, philosophical, and scientific works that were recovered and studied during the Renaissance, influencing European intellectual and cultural development. |
| geometric perspective | A mathematical technique in Renaissance art that creates the illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface through systematic use of vanishing points and proportional lines. |
| Humanist revival | The Renaissance movement that recovered and studied Greek and Roman classical texts, emphasizing human potential and secular knowledge. |
| humanists | Renaissance scholars who focused on studying classical texts, literature, and philosophy to understand human nature and society. |
| individualism | An emphasis on the importance of individual human potential, achievement, and personal development. |
| naturalism | An artistic technique developed during the Renaissance that aimed to represent subjects with realistic detail and accurate observation of the natural world. |
| philological approaches | Methods of textual analysis and interpretation used to study and understand the meaning and authenticity of ancient texts. |
| printing press | A mechanical device invented in the 1450s that enabled the mass production and dissemination of printed texts, revolutionizing the spread of ideas in Europe. |
| Renaissance | A cultural and intellectual movement from the 14th-17th centuries that challenged traditional ideas about education and women's roles in society. |
| secular models | Non-religious frameworks for understanding individual behavior and political organization developed during the Renaissance. |
| secularism | An intellectual perspective that emphasizes worldly concerns and human experience rather than religious or spiritual matters. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Christian humanism | An intellectual movement that combined Renaissance humanist learning and methods with Christian theology and religious reform, exemplified by Erasmus. |
| Erasmus | A Northern Renaissance humanist scholar whose writings employed Renaissance learning to advance religious reform and Christian thought. |
| human-centered naturalism | An artistic approach that depicts individuals and everyday life with realistic detail and human emotion as appropriate subjects for artistic representation. |
| naturalism | An artistic technique developed during the Renaissance that aimed to represent subjects with realistic detail and accurate observation of the natural world. |
| Northern Renaissance | The Renaissance movement as it developed and spread to northern Europe, characterized by a stronger religious focus than the Italian Renaissance. |
| religious focus | The emphasis on Christian themes and spiritual concerns that distinguished the Northern Renaissance from the Italian Renaissance. |
| Renaissance ideas | Intellectual and cultural concepts that emerged during the Renaissance, emphasizing humanism, individualism, and classical learning. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| dissemination | The widespread distribution and spreading of ideas, information, or knowledge to a large audience. |
| national cultures | Distinct cultural identities and traditions that developed within specific nations, often promoted through the use of vernacular languages and local literature. |
| printing press | A mechanical device invented in the 1450s that enabled the mass production and dissemination of printed texts, revolutionizing the spread of ideas in Europe. |
| Renaissance | A cultural and intellectual movement from the 14th-17th centuries that challenged traditional ideas about education and women's roles in society. |
| vernacular literature | Written works composed in native or common languages of a region rather than in Latin, making literature more accessible to ordinary people. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Book of Common Prayer | A liturgical text established by the English monarchy to standardize religious practice and assert royal control over the Church of England. |
| centralized modern state | A political system in which power is concentrated in a central government that controls taxation, military force, justice, and religious authority across a unified territory. |
| commercial and professional groups | Merchants, financiers, and educated professionals who gained increasing political power and influence in European governance during this period. |
| Concordat of Bologna | An agreement between the French monarchy and the Pope that gave the French king control over the appointment of clergy and church revenues in France. |
| Edict of Nantes | A 1598 French royal decree that granted religious toleration to Huguenots while maintaining royal authority over religious matters. |
| monopolies on tax collection | The exclusive right of the monarch to collect taxes, eliminating competing sources of revenue collection. |
| new monarchies | Centralized European states that emerged in the 15th-16th centuries, characterized by strong royal authority and control over taxation, military, justice, and religion. |
| nobles of the robe | French nobility who gained status through administrative and judicial positions rather than through military service or ancient lineage. |
| Peace of Augsburg | A 1555 agreement that allowed German princes to determine the religion of their territories, establishing the principle of cuius regio, eius religio. |
| political fragmentation | The division of a region into multiple independent political units with separate authorities and territories. |
| political institutions | Formal organizations and structures through which political power is exercised and governmental authority is administered. |
| religious reform | Movements to change or purify religious practices and doctrine, particularly within Christianity during the 15th-17th centuries. |
| secular state | A political system in which government authority is based on practical and worldly concerns rather than religious doctrine. |
| Spanish Inquisition | An institution established by Spanish monarchs to enforce religious orthodoxy and control religious life through investigation and punishment of heresy. |
| Star Chamber | An English royal court that served as an instrument of monarchical power to enforce the king's will and control the nobility. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| astrolabe | A navigational instrument used to measure the position of stars and the sun for determining location and direction at sea. |
| cartography | The art and science of making maps, which improved European understanding of world geography during the Age of Exploration. |
| Christianity | A religious faith that served as a motivation and justification for European exploration and the subjugation of indigenous civilizations. |
| compass | A navigational instrument that uses magnetic orientation to determine direction, essential for ocean exploration. |
| gold | A precious metal sought by European states during the Age of Exploration to enhance personal wealth and state power. |
| gunpowder | An explosive powder used in military technology that gave European states a military advantage during exploration and expansion. |
| guns | Firearms and artillery that provided European military superiority during exploration and colonial expansion. |
| indigenous populations | Native peoples and societies encountered by Europeans during exploration and expansion, often subjected to conquest and conversion. |
| lateen rig | A triangular sail configuration that improved ship maneuverability and allowed vessels to sail more effectively against the wind. |
| luxury goods | High-value commodities such as spices, silk, and precious materials that European states sought to obtain for wealth and power. |
| mercantilism | An economic theory and practice that emphasized national wealth accumulation through trade surpluses, colonial expansion, and government regulation of commerce. |
| military technology | Weapons, equipment, and innovations used in warfare, such as machine guns, poison gas, tanks, and aircraft that fundamentally changed combat tactics in World War I. |
| navigation | The science and practice of determining a ship's position and course at sea, essential for long-distance oceanic voyages. |
| overseas colonies | Overseas territories established and settled by European nations for commercial and religious purposes. |
| overseas empires | Territories and colonies established by European powers outside of Europe, used to project power and accumulate wealth through trade and resource extraction. |
| portolani | Medieval nautical charts that mapped coastlines and provided navigational information for maritime exploration. |
| quadrant | A navigational instrument used to measure the altitude of celestial bodies for determining latitude during ocean voyages. |
| spices | Luxury goods from Asia and other regions that European states sought to acquire directly through exploration and trade. |
| sternpost rudder | A navigational technology that improved ship steering and maneuverability during ocean voyages. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Asiento | A contract granting a European power the exclusive right to supply enslaved people to Spanish American colonies. |
| coercion | The use of force or threats to establish European control over overseas territories and populations. |
| colonial expansion | The process by which European nations established settlements, political control, and economic dominance in regions outside of Europe, particularly during the 15th-18th centuries. |
| negotiation | Diplomatic discussions and agreements used by European states to establish colonies and trading networks. |
| overseas empires | Territories and colonies established by European powers outside of Europe, used to project power and accumulate wealth through trade and resource extraction. |
| Seven Years' War | A global conflict (1756-1763) fought between Britain and France in Europe and their colonies, resulting in British dominance. |
| trade networks | Interconnected systems of commercial routes and relationships through which goods, resources, and enslaved persons were exchanged between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. |
| Treaty of Tordesillas | An agreement between Spain and Portugal in 1494 that divided newly discovered lands and colonial territories between the two powers. |
| War of the Spanish Succession | A major European conflict (1701-1714) fought over control of Spanish territories and colonial possessions following the death of the Spanish king. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Atlantic states | European nations with coastlines on the Atlantic Ocean, such as Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Dutch Republic, which became dominant economic powers through colonial expansion. |
| colonial expansion | The process by which European nations established settlements, political control, and economic dominance in regions outside of Europe, particularly during the 15th-18th centuries. |
| Columbian Exchange | The transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between Europe and the Americas beginning in 1492, which created economic opportunities and transformed societies on both sides of the Atlantic. |
| commercial network | An organized system of trading posts and maritime routes established to facilitate the exchange of goods and resources across regions. |
| cultural practices | Customs, traditions, beliefs, and social behaviors characteristic of a particular society or group. |
| diseases | Pathogens and illnesses transmitted between Europe and the Americas during the Columbian Exchange, often with devastating effects on indigenous populations. |
| economic impact | The effect of colonial expansion and trade networks on economic systems, wealth distribution, and commercial activity in Europe and beyond. |
| enslaved persons | Individuals forcibly held in bondage and forced to labor without freedom, a practice that expanded significantly through European colonial trade networks. |
| European dominance | The shift in global economic and political power toward European nations as a result of colonial expansion and control of trade networks. |
| global exchange of goods | The worldwide movement and trade of commodities between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas resulting from colonial expansion. |
| indigenous populations | Native peoples and societies encountered by Europeans during exploration and expansion, often subjected to conquest and conversion. |
| Mediterranean | The sea region that was the center of European economic power before the shift to Atlantic trade in the 15th and 16th centuries. |
| trade networks | Interconnected systems of commercial routes and relationships through which goods, resources, and enslaved persons were exchanged between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. |
| world economy | An interconnected global system of trade and commerce in which regions exchange goods and resources across continents. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| demographic catastrophes | Massive population declines among indigenous peoples in the Americas caused by disease, warfare, and exploitation, which created labor shortages that Europeans sought to fill through the slave trade. |
| Middle Passage | The forced voyage across the Atlantic Ocean that transported enslaved Africans to the Americas, characterized by brutal conditions and high mortality rates. |
| plantation economy | An economic system in the Americas based on large-scale agricultural estates that produced cash crops, particularly sugar, tobacco, and cotton, relying heavily on enslaved labor. |
| planter society | A social and economic structure in the Americas dominated by wealthy plantation owners who held significant political and social power and depended on enslaved labor. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Catholic Reformation | A movement within the Catholic Church from the mid-16th century onward that sought to reform church practices, combat Protestantism, and revitalize Catholic spirituality. |
| commercial capitalism | An economic system based on trade, merchant activity, and the pursuit of profit through commerce that increasingly shaped European society in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| folk ideas | Traditional beliefs, customs, and practices held by common people that often reflect pre-Christian or non-official religious elements. |
| nuclear family | A family unit consisting of parents and their children, which was one of several family forms that served as a primary social and economic institution in early modern Europe. |
| political centralization | The concentration of political power and authority in a central government, a process that occurred unevenly across European states in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| Protestant Reformation | A 16th-century religious movement that challenged Catholic Church authority and led to the creation of Protestant churches and significant changes in theology and religious practice. |
| religious pluralism | The coexistence of multiple religious beliefs and denominations within a society, challenging the medieval concept of religious unity in Europe. |
| secular systems of law | Legal systems based on civil authority rather than religious doctrine, which played a central role in the development of new political institutions in the early modern period. |
| sovereign state | A political entity with supreme authority over its territory and population, independent from religious or external control, central to early modern European political development. |
| state control of religious institutions | The process by which European states increased their authority over churches and religious organizations during the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anabaptists | A radical Protestant group that rejected infant baptism and refused to recognize the subordination of the church to secular state control. |
| Calvinists | Followers of John Calvin who believed in predestination and often viewed economic success as evidence of God's favor. |
| Catholic abuses | Corrupt or improper practices within the Catholic Church that reformers criticized, such as the sale of indulgences. |
| Christian doctrine | The official teachings and beliefs of the Christian Church regarding faith and salvation. |
| Predestination | The theological doctrine that God has already determined which individuals will achieve salvation and which will not. |
| Priesthood of all believers | A Protestant doctrine asserting that all Christians have direct access to God and can interpret scripture without requiring a priestly intermediary. |
| Primacy of scripture | The Protestant principle that the Bible is the ultimate authority for Christian doctrine and practice, above church tradition and papal authority. |
| religious practices | The rituals, ceremonies, behaviors, and convictions through which people express and live out their faith. |
| Salvation by faith alone | The Protestant belief that salvation is achieved through faith in God and Christ alone, without the need for works or church sacraments. |
| wealth accumulation | The gathering and increase of material possessions and economic resources. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anabaptists | A radical Protestant group that rejected infant baptism and refused to recognize the subordination of the church to secular state control. |
| Calvin | A major Protestant reformer who developed Calvinist theology and refused to subordinate the church to secular state authority. |
| Huguenots | French Protestants who challenged the French monarch's control of religious institutions during the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| printing press | A mechanical device invented in the 1450s that enabled the mass production and dissemination of printed texts, revolutionizing the spread of ideas in Europe. |
| Protestant reformers | Religious leaders who challenged Catholic Church authority and doctrine, seeking to reform Christian practices and beliefs during the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| Puritans | English Protestants who challenged the monarch's control of religious institutions and sought further reform of the Church of England. |
| religious conflicts | Disputes and violence arising from differences in religious beliefs and practices, often used as a basis for challenging monarchical authority over religious institutions. |
| religious reform | Movements to change or purify religious practices and doctrine, particularly within Christianity during the 15th-17th centuries. |
| vernacular Bibles | Translations of the Bible into common languages spoken by ordinary people, rather than Latin, making scripture accessible to the general population. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Catholic unity | The attempt to maintain religious uniformity under Catholic doctrine across European territories controlled by Habsburg rulers. |
| Edict of Nantes | A 1598 French royal decree that granted religious toleration to Huguenots while maintaining royal authority over religious matters. |
| French wars of religion | A series of civil conflicts in 16th-century France between Catholic and Protestant (Huguenot) factions that influenced political power struggles. |
| Habsburg rulers | Monarchs of the Habsburg dynasty who controlled vast European territories and attempted to maintain Catholic unity during the Reformation era. |
| Holy Roman Empire | A political entity in Central Europe that existed from 962 to 1806, composed of numerous German and Italian states under an elected emperor. |
| Ottoman Empire | The multi-ethnic empire centered in Turkey that controlled much of southeastern Europe, western Asia, and North Africa until its decline in the 19th century. |
| Peace of Westphalia | A series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and established the principle of state sovereignty in Europe. |
| religious pluralism | The coexistence of multiple religious beliefs and denominations within a society, challenging the medieval concept of religious unity in Europe. |
| religious reform | Movements to change or purify religious practices and doctrine, particularly within Christianity during the 15th-17th centuries. |
| St. Bartholomew's Day massacre | A 1572 massacre of Protestants in France that exemplified the violence of the French wars of religion. |
| Thirty Years' War | A major 17th-century European conflict (1618-1648) in which states exploited religious divisions between Catholics and Protestants for political and economic gain. |
| universal Christendom | The medieval ideal of a unified Christian Europe under a single religious authority, which declined after the Reformation and Peace of Westphalia. |
| War of the Three Henrys | A conflict during the French wars of religion involving competing claims to the French throne among three Henry-named figures. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Catholic Reformation | A movement within the Catholic Church from the mid-16th century onward that sought to reform church practices, combat Protestantism, and revitalize Catholic spirituality. |
| Council of Trent | A major church council (1545-1563) that defined Catholic doctrine, reformed church practices, and established responses to Protestant challenges. |
| Index of Prohibited Books | A list maintained by the Catholic Church of books deemed heretical or immoral that Catholics were forbidden to read. |
| Jesuit Order | A Catholic religious order founded in the 16th century known for its emphasis on education, missionary work, and strict discipline in service to the Pope. |
| Roman Inquisition | An institution established by the Catholic Church to investigate and suppress heresy, particularly in response to Protestant reform movements. |
| St. Teresa of Avila | A Spanish mystic and Carmelite nun of the 16th century who reformed her order and exemplified Catholic spiritual renewal during the Catholic Reformation. |
| Ursulines | A Catholic religious order founded in the 16th century dedicated to education and charitable work, particularly the education of girls. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aristocratic privileges | Special rights and exemptions granted to the nobility, including tax advantages and legal protections unavailable to lower classes. |
| Carnival | A communal leisure activity organized by the religious calendar that city authorities sometimes restricted as part of regulating public morals. |
| charivari | A ritual of public humiliation used to enforce communal norms by mocking individuals who violated social expectations. |
| class | A social division based on economic status and occupation that helped define social hierarchy in rural and urban settings. |
| communal norms | Shared standards of behavior and conduct enforced by local and church authorities through public rituals and punishments. |
| female education | Intellectual training and schooling for women, a topic of debate during the Renaissance and Reformation. |
| gender hierarchies | Structured systems of social ranking based on gender that determined roles, rights, and social status for men and women. |
| La Querelle des Femmes | A literary and intellectual debate about women's nature, capabilities, and proper roles in society that emerged during the Renaissance. |
| land ownership | Control of agricultural property that served as a primary source of prestige and social status in 16th-century society. |
| Protestant Reformation | A 16th-century religious movement that challenged Catholic Church authority and led to the creation of Protestant churches and significant changes in theology and religious practice. |
| public morals | Standards of behavior and conduct enforced by city governments and authorities to maintain social order and religious propriety. |
| Renaissance | A cultural and intellectual movement from the 14th-17th centuries that challenged traditional ideas about education and women's roles in society. |
| rural households | Family units in countryside settings where men and women performed separate but complementary economic tasks. |
| Saint's day festivities | Communal celebrations organized according to the religious calendar that served as leisure activities for rural and urban populations. |
| social dislocation | Disruption of traditional social structures and community bonds, often resulting from economic and religious changes. |
| social hierarchies | Structured systems of social ranking based on class, religion, and gender that determined status and social position in 16th-century European society. |
| urban households | Family units in cities where men and women performed separate but complementary economic tasks. |
| witchcraft accusations | Charges of practicing witchcraft that peaked between 1580 and 1650, often reflecting social upheaval and targeting women. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| artistic expression | The creative communication of ideas, emotions, and values through visual art forms and techniques. |
| Baroque | An artistic style from the late 16th to 18th centuries characterized by dramatic use of light, shadow, emotion, and movement to create theatrical and powerful visual effects. |
| distortion | The deliberate alteration or exaggeration of forms and proportions in art to create emotional or dramatic effects. |
| drama | The use of intense emotion, conflict, and theatrical elements in artistic composition to engage and move the viewer. |
| illusion | Artistic techniques used to create the appearance of depth, movement, or reality that may differ from the actual physical properties of the artwork. |
| Mannerism | An artistic style of the 16th century characterized by the use of distortion, drama, and illusion to create emotionally intense and stylistically complex works. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Catholic Reformation | A movement within the Catholic Church from the mid-16th century onward that sought to reform church practices, combat Protestantism, and revitalize Catholic spirituality. |
| commercial capitalism | An economic system based on trade, merchant activity, and the pursuit of profit through commerce that increasingly shaped European society in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| folk ideas | Traditional beliefs, customs, and practices held by common people that often reflect pre-Christian or non-official religious elements. |
| nuclear family | A family unit consisting of parents and their children, which was one of several family forms that served as a primary social and economic institution in early modern Europe. |
| political centralization | The concentration of political power and authority in a central government, a process that occurred unevenly across European states in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| Protestant Reformation | A 16th-century religious movement that challenged Catholic Church authority and led to the creation of Protestant churches and significant changes in theology and religious practice. |
| religious institutions | Organized structures and organizations through which religious beliefs and practices are maintained and transmitted in society. |
| religious pluralism | The coexistence of multiple religious beliefs and denominations within a society, challenging the medieval concept of religious unity in Europe. |
| secular systems of law | Legal systems based on civil authority rather than religious doctrine, which played a central role in the development of new political institutions in the early modern period. |
| sovereign state | A political entity with supreme authority over its territory and population, independent from religious or external control, central to early modern European political development. |
| state authority | The power and legitimacy of the state to govern and enforce laws over its territory and subjects. |
| urbanization | The rapid growth of cities and the movement of populations from rural to urban areas as a result of industrial development. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolute monarchy | A form of government in which a monarch holds supreme power with minimal constitutional or legal limitations on authority. |
| governmental authority | The power and right of government to make and enforce decisions and laws over a territory and population. |
| minority language groups | Communities within a state that speak languages different from the dominant national language. |
| national identities | The sense of belonging to a nation, shaped by shared history, language, culture, and political institutions. |
| political centralization | The concentration of political power and authority in a central government, a process that occurred unevenly across European states in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| political institutions | Formal organizations and structures through which political power is exercised and governmental authority is administered. |
| political sovereignty | The supreme power and authority of a state to govern itself and make independent decisions without external interference. |
| regional autonomy | The right of regions or territories to exercise self-governance and control over local affairs with limited interference from central authority. |
| secular systems of law | Legal systems based on civil authority rather than religious doctrine, which played a central role in the development of new political institutions in the early modern period. |
| sovereign state | A political entity with supreme authority over its territory and population, independent from religious or external control, central to early modern European political development. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolutism | A system of government in which a monarch holds complete power and authority, unchecked by laws, institutions, or representative bodies. |
| aristocracy | The hereditary upper class of nobles and titled individuals who maintained social status and legal privileges under absolute rule. |
| English Bill of Rights | A document established after the Glorious Revolution that protected the rights of gentry and aristocracy from royal absolutism and asserted Parliamentary authority. |
| English Civil War | A conflict in 17th-century England among the monarchy, Parliament, and other elites over their respective roles in the political structure. |
| gentry | The class of landowners and elites in England whose rights and power were protected through the outcomes of the English Civil War and Glorious Revolution. |
| Glorious Revolution | The 1688 revolution in England that resulted in the protection of Parliamentary rights and the limitation of monarchical power. |
| monarchy | A form of government headed by a single ruler, typically a king or queen, whose power was contested during the English Civil War. |
| Parliament | The legislative body in England that competed with the monarchy for political power and authority during the English Civil War. |
| Parliamentary sovereignty | The principle that Parliament holds supreme authority in government, established as an outcome of the English Civil War and Glorious Revolution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Agricultural Revolution | The 18th-century transformation in farming practices and productivity that increased food supply, reduced famines, and enabled population growth. |
| Bank of England | A major banking institution established to support financial practices and provide venture capital for commercial development in early modern Europe. |
| banking institutions | Financial organizations that converted private savings into venture capital to fund commercial and economic enterprises. |
| commodities | Raw materials and agricultural products that are bought and sold in trade, such as goods imported from the Americas. |
| cottage industry | Small-scale manufacturing production carried out by laborers in their homes or workshops, typically organized through merchant intermediaries. |
| insurance | A financial practice that provided protection against commercial risks and losses in early modern trade and commerce. |
| market economy | An economic system in which goods and services are produced and distributed through supply and demand in competitive markets rather than by state direction. |
| merchant intermediaries | Merchants who served as middlemen between producers and consumers, organizing production and distribution of goods in the putting-out system. |
| property rights | Legal protections that defined ownership and prevented confiscation of property and commercial assets in the developing market economy. |
| putting-out system | An economic system in which merchants or workshop owners supplied raw materials to laborers working in their homes or small workshops, who then produced finished goods for market sale. |
| venture capital | Funds invested by banking institutions in commercial enterprises and economic ventures. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Agricultural Revolution | The 18th-century transformation in farming practices and productivity that increased food supply, reduced famines, and enabled population growth. |
| consumer culture | A society organized around the production and consumption of goods and services, enabled by mass production, new technologies, and increased disposable income, featuring domestic comforts like electricity, indoor plumbing, and synthetic materials. |
| European-dominated worldwide economic network | The global system of trade and commerce centered on European commercial interests, connecting Europe, Africa, the Americas, and Asia from the 17th century onward. |
| finished goods | Manufactured products produced in Europe and traded in colonial and foreign markets as part of commercial networks. |
| industrial revolution | The period of rapid industrialization and mechanization that began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, fundamentally transforming economic and social life. |
| mercantilist policies | Economic policies pursued by European states that aimed to accumulate wealth and power by drawing resources from colonies and maintaining a favorable balance of trade. |
| Middle Passage | The forced voyage across the Atlantic Ocean that transported enslaved Africans to the Americas, characterized by brutal conditions and high mortality rates. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources extracted from colonies and foreign lands that were used in European commercial and industrial enterprises. |
| transatlantic slave-labor system | The forced labor system that transported enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to work in colonies, particularly in the Americas, expanding significantly in the 17th and 18th centuries. |
| Triangle trade | A three-part transatlantic trading system in which goods, enslaved people, and raw materials were exchanged between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Dutch Republic | The independent state established in the northern Netherlands following a Protestant revolt against Habsburg rule in the late 16th century. |
| Habsburg monarchy | The European dynasty that ruled the Spanish Netherlands and other territories, against which the Dutch revolted. |
| oligarchy | A form of government in which power rests with a small number of people, as established by urban gentry and rural landholders in the Dutch Republic. |
| Protestant revolt | The religious and political uprising against Catholic Habsburg authority that led to the establishment of the Dutch Republic. |
| rural landholders | Landowners in the countryside who shared political power in the Dutch oligarchy alongside urban merchants. |
| urban gentry | Wealthy merchants and professionals in Dutch cities who held political and economic power in the oligarchic system. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| balance of power | A principle of international relations in which no single state or coalition becomes dominant enough to threaten the independence of others, maintained through strategic alliances and territorial arrangements. |
| Battle of Vienna | The 1683 military victory by Austria over the Ottoman Turks that halted Ottoman westward expansion into Europe. |
| bureaucracy | Administrative systems and institutions developed by states to organize and manage military forces and resources. |
| coalition | An alliance of multiple European powers formed to oppose a dominant state, such as the coalition against Louis XIV. |
| competitive state system | The system of independent European states competing for power and influence, which led to new patterns of diplomacy and warfare after 1648. |
| diplomacy | The practice of negotiation and communication between states to manage international relations and resolve conflicts. |
| dynastic interests | The political and territorial goals pursued by ruling families to expand their power and secure their dynasty's succession and wealth. |
| firearms | Weapons using gunpowder that gradually replaced traditional medieval weapons like bows and crossbows. |
| fortifications | Defensive structures and military installations designed to protect territory and resist siege warfare. |
| infantry | Soldiers who fight on foot, which became increasingly important in military strategy during this period. |
| Louis XIV's wars | The nearly continuous military conflicts pursued by Louis XIV of France to advance both dynastic and state interests, provoking opposition from other European powers. |
| military revolution | A transformation in military technology, tactics, and organization that fundamentally changed warfare and required states to develop new institutions and resources. |
| military technology | Weapons, equipment, and innovations used in warfare, such as machine guns, poison gas, tanks, and aircraft that fundamentally changed combat tactics in World War I. |
| mobile cannon | Portable artillery pieces that could be moved across battlefields, increasing the effectiveness of military forces. |
| Peace of Westphalia | A series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and established the principle of state sovereignty in Europe. |
| Poland's partition | The division of Polish territory among Prussia, Russia, and Austria in the late 18th century, resulting from the Polish monarchy's inability to consolidate authority. |
| state interests | The political, economic, and military objectives pursued by a nation-state to increase its power and security. |
| taxation | Revenue collection by states used to finance the increased costs of military technology and larger armies. |
| warfare | Military conflict and combat strategies that evolved with new technologies and techniques during this period. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolute monarchies | Centralized governments where a single monarch exercises supreme authority over the state, military, religion, and economy. |
| administrative control | The centralized management and organization of government institutions and bureaucracy by the absolute monarch. |
| aristocracy | The hereditary upper class of nobles and titled individuals who maintained social status and legal privileges under absolute rule. |
| central state | The consolidated authority and institutions of the absolute monarch's government exercising power over the entire realm. |
| financial control | The monarch's centralized authority over taxation, state revenues, and economic resources. |
| intendants | Royal administrators appointed by the French crown to enforce the monarch's authority in provinces and manage local governance. |
| military control | The absolute monarch's direct command and modernization of armed forces as an instrument of state power. |
| nobility | The aristocratic class of hereditary landowners and titled individuals who traditionally held significant political and social power. |
| religious control | The monarch's authority over religious institutions, clergy, and doctrine within their realm. |
| westernization | The adoption of Western European political, cultural, religious, and technological practices and institutions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolute monarchy | A form of government in which a monarch holds supreme power with minimal constitutional or legal limitations on authority. |
| market economy | An economic system in which goods and services are produced and distributed through supply and demand in competitive markets rather than by state direction. |
| nobility | The aristocratic class of hereditary landowners and titled individuals who traditionally held significant political and social power. |
| political centralization | The concentration of political power and authority in a central government, a process that occurred unevenly across European states in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| political institutions | Formal organizations and structures through which political power is exercised and governmental authority is administered. |
| political sovereignty | The supreme power and authority of a state to govern itself and make independent decisions without external interference. |
| regional autonomy | The right of regions or territories to exercise self-governance and control over local affairs with limited interference from central authority. |
| secular systems of law | Legal systems based on civil authority rather than religious doctrine, which played a central role in the development of new political institutions in the early modern period. |
| shared governance | A system of political power in which authority is distributed among multiple groups, such as the monarch and nobility, rather than held by one entity. |
| sovereign state | A political entity with supreme authority over its territory and population, independent from religious or external control, central to early modern European political development. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolutism | A system of government in which a monarch holds complete power and authority, unchecked by laws, institutions, or representative bodies. |
| commercial revolution | The expansion of trade, commerce, and market-based economic activity in Europe during the early modern period, transforming economic structures and social life. |
| empiricism | The philosophical approach that knowledge is derived from sensory experience and observation rather than from innate ideas or authority. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| experimentation | The controlled testing of hypotheses through practical trials, a fundamental method of the Scientific Revolution that replaced reliance on classical authority. |
| mathematics | The use of quantitative and mathematical analysis as a tool in Scientific Revolution science to describe and understand natural phenomena. |
| mercantilism | An economic theory and practice that emphasized national wealth accumulation through trade surpluses, colonial expansion, and government regulation of commerce. |
| natural religion | A religious perspective based on reason and observation of the natural world rather than on revelation or religious doctrine, emphasizing universal principles accessible to all people. |
| observation | The systematic and careful examination of the natural world, a key method in Scientific Revolution science that challenged classical views. |
| rationalism | The philosophical emphasis on human reason and logical thinking as the primary means of understanding the world and solving problems. |
| religious toleration | The acceptance of different religious beliefs and practices, allowing individuals freedom of conscience and worship without persecution. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| skepticism | The philosophical attitude of questioning and doubting established beliefs and authorities, demanding evidence and rational justification. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| alchemy | A medieval and early modern practice that sought to transform base metals into gold and discover the elixir of life, often blending mystical and proto-scientific ideas. |
| astrology | The study of celestial bodies and their supposed influence on human affairs and natural events. |
| deductive reasoning | A method of reasoning that applies general principles or laws to reach specific conclusions. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| experimentation | The controlled testing of hypotheses through practical trials, a fundamental method of the Scientific Revolution that replaced reliance on classical authority. |
| heliocentric view | The astronomical model in which the sun is at the center of the cosmos and planets, including Earth, orbit around it. |
| humoral theory | A traditional medical theory that explained health and disease through the balance of four bodily humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile). |
| inductive reasoning | A method of reasoning that draws general conclusions from specific observations and experimental evidence. |
| natural philosophers | Scholars and thinkers of the early modern period who investigated the natural world through observation and reasoning, precursors to modern scientists. |
| scientific method | A systematic approach to understanding the natural world based on observation, experimentation, mathematics, and logical reasoning. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| academies | Institutions that broadened the audience for new Enlightenment ideas through formal intellectual gatherings and education. |
| atheism | The philosophical position that denies the existence of God or gods. |
| coffeehouses | Public institutions that served as venues for intellectual discussion and the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas. |
| consent of the governed | The principle that legitimate government authority derives from the agreement and acceptance of the people being governed. |
| deism | A philosophical position that believes in God based on reason and observation of nature rather than religious revelation or doctrine. |
| divine right | The traditional political theory that monarchs derive their authority directly from God rather than from the people. |
| empiricism | The philosophical approach that knowledge is derived from sensory experience and observation rather than from innate ideas or authority. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| free market | An economic system in which prices and production are determined by supply and demand with minimal government intervention. |
| free trade | An economic principle advocating the removal of government restrictions on commerce and the exchange of goods between nations. |
| French Revolution | A period of radical social and political upheaval in France (1789-1799) that fundamentally transformed French society and had lasting effects across Europe. |
| Masonic lodges | Organizations that served as institutions for discussing and spreading Enlightenment thought among their members. |
| mercantilism | An economic theory and practice that emphasized national wealth accumulation through trade surpluses, colonial expansion, and government regulation of commerce. |
| natural rights | Fundamental rights believed to belong to all people by virtue of their humanity, not granted by government. |
| Physiocrats | A school of economic thought that challenged mercantilism by emphasizing agriculture and natural economic laws. |
| Pietism | A religious movement emphasizing personal faith and emotional experience, which experienced a revival in Germany during the Enlightenment. |
| rationalism | The philosophical emphasis on human reason and logical thinking as the primary means of understanding the world and solving problems. |
| salons | Institutions, typically hosted in private homes, where intellectuals gathered to discuss and disseminate Enlightenment ideas. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| skepticism | The philosophical attitude of questioning and doubting established beliefs and authorities, demanding evidence and rational justification. |
| social contract | Political theory proposing that individuals agree to surrender some freedoms to a government in exchange for protection of their remaining rights and maintenance of social order. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural productivity | The efficiency and output of farming practices, which increased significantly in the 18th century through improved techniques and technology. |
| Agricultural Revolution | The 18th-century transformation in farming practices and productivity that increased food supply, reduced famines, and enabled population growth. |
| birth control methods | Practices used to limit fertility and family size in some 18th-century European areas. |
| child-rearing | The practices and resources families devoted to raising children, which increased in emphasis and investment during the 18th century. |
| commercial wealth | Economic prosperity generated through trade and commerce, which increased in the 18th century and allowed families to invest more in children and comfort. |
| communal values | Traditional social norms and practices based on community bonds that were eroded by the growth of cities in the 18th century. |
| crime | Illegal activities that increased in visibility in 18th-century cities and prompted greater policing efforts. |
| demographic changes | Shifts in population size, structure, and distribution over time, including changes in birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns. |
| demographic crises | Periods of severe disruption to population stability, such as famines or epidemics, that cause mortality spikes and population decline. |
| European marriage pattern | A demographic pattern in which Europeans delayed marriage and childbearing in response to economic and environmental challenges, restraining population growth. |
| food supply | The availability of food resources to sustain a population, affected by agricultural productivity, transportation, and weather conditions. |
| illegitimate births | Children born outside of marriage, whose rate increased in the 18th century despite the limiting effects of the European marriage pattern. |
| infant and child mortality | The death rate of young children, which decreased significantly in the 18th century and influenced family structure and child-rearing practices. |
| inoculation | A medical technique of deliberately exposing a person to a disease agent to build immunity and reduce mortality from that disease. |
| plague | A devastating epidemic disease that was a major cause of mortality in earlier centuries but declined as a significant threat by the 18th century. |
| population growth | The increase in the total number of people in a region or society over time. |
| poverty | A social condition of economic deprivation that became increasingly visible and recognized as a problem in growing 18th-century cities. |
| private life | The domestic and personal sphere of family life, which received increased emphasis and resources in 18th-century households. |
| prostitution | A social problem that became more visible in growing 18th-century cities and prompted increased efforts to police and control it. |
| rural-to-urban migration | The movement of people from agricultural countryside areas to cities in search of economic opportunities and employment. |
| smallpox | A contagious disease whose mortality rates were significantly reduced in the 18th century through inoculation. |
| transportation | The systems and infrastructure for moving goods, which improved in the 18th century and increased the distribution of food supplies. |
| urbanization | The rapid growth of cities and the movement of populations from rural to urban areas as a result of industrial development. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Baroque art | An artistic style from the 17th and early 18th centuries that emphasized religious feeling and was used by monarchs to demonstrate state power. |
| bourgeois society | The commercial middle-class society whose outlook and values increasingly influenced 18th-century art and literature. |
| censorship | The suppression or control of information, publications, and speech to limit public expression and dissent. |
| consumer revolution | An 18th-century transformation in European society characterized by increased purchasing of new goods for homes and new leisure activities. |
| Enlightenment ideals | 18th-century intellectual principles emphasizing reason, citizenship, and political participation that influenced artistic and cultural movements. |
| leisure activities | New recreational venues and pursuits that emerged in 18th-century Europe as part of the consumer revolution, including coffeehouses, taverns, and theaters. |
| literate public | The growing population of people who could read and access printed materials in 18th-century Europe. |
| Neoclassicism | An 18th-century artistic movement that expressed Enlightenment ideals of citizenship and political participation through a return to classical forms. |
| printed materials | Various forms of published content including newspapers, periodicals, books, and pamphlets that served a growing literate public in the 18th century. |
| privacy | A new concern in 18th-century European culture reflected in home design with private retreats and in literature exploring private emotion. |
| public opinion | Collective views and attitudes of the general population, increasingly shaped by printed materials and literacy in the 18th century. |
| the Encyclopédie | A major 18th-century French publication that compiled knowledge and reflected Enlightenment ideals. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Austria | The central European territory that became the core of Habsburg power after the Peace of Westphalia. |
| civil equality | The granting of equal legal rights and status to all citizens regardless of religion or other characteristics. |
| enlightened absolutism | A form of government in 18th-century Europe where monarchs maintained absolute power while implementing reforms based on Enlightenment principles. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| Habsburgs | A European royal dynasty that ruled the Holy Roman Empire and Austria, shifting their power base eastward after 1648. |
| Holy Roman Empire | A political entity in Central Europe that existed from 962 to 1806, composed of numerous German and Italian states under an elected emperor. |
| Peace of Westphalia | A series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and established the principle of state sovereignty in Europe. |
| Prussia | A German state that rose to major power status in the 17th and 18th centuries, eventually becoming the dominant German power. |
| religious toleration | The acceptance of different religious beliefs and practices, allowing individuals freedom of conscience and worship without persecution. |
| sovereignty | The power of a state to govern itself and make independent decisions without external interference. |
| unified Europe | The concept of European political, religious, or cultural cohesion and integration as a single entity. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolutism | A system of government in which a monarch holds complete power and authority, unchecked by laws, institutions, or representative bodies. |
| commercial revolution | The expansion of trade, commerce, and market-based economic activity in Europe during the early modern period, transforming economic structures and social life. |
| empiricism | The philosophical approach that knowledge is derived from sensory experience and observation rather than from innate ideas or authority. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| mercantilism | An economic theory and practice that emphasized national wealth accumulation through trade surpluses, colonial expansion, and government regulation of commerce. |
| natural religion | A religious perspective based on reason and observation of the natural world rather than on revelation or religious doctrine, emphasizing universal principles accessible to all people. |
| rationalism | The philosophical emphasis on human reason and logical thinking as the primary means of understanding the world and solving problems. |
| religious toleration | The acceptance of different religious beliefs and practices, allowing individuals freedom of conscience and worship without persecution. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| skepticism | The philosophical attitude of questioning and doubting established beliefs and authorities, demanding evidence and rational justification. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| commercial rivalries | Competition among European states for trade, resources, and economic dominance that influenced diplomatic and military conflicts. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| French Revolution | A period of radical social and political upheaval in France (1789-1799) that fundamentally transformed French society and had lasting effects across Europe. |
| mass politics | Political movements and activities involving large numbers of ordinary people rather than just elites, often driven by emotional appeals and nationalist sentiment. |
| Napoleon Bonaparte | French military leader who seized power during the French Revolution and imposed French control over much of continental Europe before his eventual defeat. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| political sovereignty | The supreme power and authority of a state to govern itself and make independent decisions without external interference. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Atlantic influence | Control and dominance over trade, colonies, and naval power in the Atlantic Ocean region during the 18th century. |
| commercial rivalries | Competition among European states for trade, resources, and economic dominance that influenced diplomatic and military conflicts. |
| East Indies | The region of Southeast Asia, particularly the Indonesian archipelago, which was a major source of valuable spices and trade goods sought by European powers. |
| European sea powers | Nations with significant naval capabilities and maritime dominance, including Portugal, the Dutch Republic, France, and Britain. |
| maritime competition | Rivalry between European sea powers for control of trade routes, colonial territories, and naval dominance from 1648 to 1815. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Revolution | The conflict (1775-1783) in which thirteen British colonies in North America rebelled and established the United States as an independent nation. |
| economic consequences | The effects on trade, commerce, resources, and financial systems resulting from political or military events. |
| European power | A nation with significant military, political, and economic influence in Europe and internationally. |
| overseas colonies | Overseas territories established and settled by European nations for commercial and religious purposes. |
| political consequences | The effects on government power, territorial control, and international relations resulting from conflict or competition. |
| rivalry | A state of competition or conflict between two powers seeking dominance or advantage over each other. |
| Seven Years' War | A global conflict (1756-1763) fought between Britain and France in Europe and their colonies, resulting in British dominance. |
| world wars | Large-scale conflicts involving multiple European powers and their colonial territories fought across continents. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bourgeois grievances | Complaints and demands of the middle class regarding taxation, representation, and economic restrictions that contributed to revolutionary causes. |
| bread shortages | Severe scarcity of grain and bread supplies that created widespread hunger and discontent, a key short-term cause of the revolution. |
| Civil Constitution of the Clergy | A revolutionary decree that nationalized the Catholic Church in France and made clergy subject to state authority rather than papal authority. |
| Committee of Public Safety | The executive body that wielded supreme power during the Reign of Terror, responsible for directing the radical phase of the revolution. |
| Constitution of 1791 | The first written constitution of France, establishing a constitutional monarchy and the framework for the moderate phase of the revolution. |
| constitutional monarchy | A system of government in which a monarch's powers are limited by a constitution, established during the liberal phase of the French Revolution. |
| de-Christianization | A radical policy pursued during the Reign of Terror aimed at removing the influence of the Catholic Church from French society and government. |
| Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen | A foundational document of the French Revolution that outlined fundamental human rights and principles of popular sovereignty. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| fiscal crisis | A severe shortage of government funds and inability to manage state finances, a key short-term cause of the revolution. |
| French Revolution | A period of radical social and political upheaval in France (1789-1799) that fundamentally transformed French society and had lasting effects across Europe. |
| hereditary privileges | Rights and advantages granted to individuals based on their birth into noble or privileged families, which were abolished during the revolution. |
| Jacobin republic | The radical phase of the French Revolution dominated by the Jacobin faction, characterized by centralized authority and revolutionary fervor. |
| levée en masse | A French term for mass conscription or the mobilization of the entire population for military service during the revolutionary wars. |
| mass conscription | The mandatory enrollment of large numbers of citizens into the military, used to raise revolutionary armies to spread revolutionary changes across Europe. |
| October March on Versailles | A significant early revolutionary event in which women and common people marched to the royal palace, demonstrating female participation in the revolution. |
| peasant grievances | Complaints of rural agricultural workers regarding land ownership, taxation, and feudal obligations that fueled revolutionary sentiment. |
| Reign of Terror | The period of radical Jacobin rule (1793-1794) under Robespierre marked by mass executions and political repression of perceived enemies of the revolution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| equality | A core principle of the French Revolution emphasizing that all people possess equal rights and should be treated without discrimination based on birth or status. |
| human rights | Fundamental rights and freedoms believed to belong to all people, a concept emphasized during the French Revolution and used to inspire revolutionary movements. |
| Revolutionary ideals | Political and social principles promoted during the French Revolution, including concepts of liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty that inspired movements across Europe and the Americas. |
| Saint-Domingue | A French colony in the Caribbean that experienced a major slave revolt inspired by French Revolutionary ideals, eventually becoming the independent nation of Haiti in 1804. |
| Toussaint L'Ouverture | Leader of the Haitian Revolution who led an enslaved people's revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, establishing Haiti as an independent nation in 1804. |
| traditional authority | Established power structures and institutions, such as monarchy and aristocracy, that the French Revolution challenged and sought to replace with new forms of governance. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| careers open to talent | A Napoleonic reform that allowed individuals to advance in government and military positions based on ability rather than noble birth. |
| censorship | The suppression or control of information, publications, and speech to limit public expression and dissent. |
| centralized bureaucracy | A system of government administration concentrated in a central authority with hierarchical organization and standardized procedures. |
| Civil Code | Napoleon's comprehensive legal system that standardized laws across France and influenced legal systems throughout Europe. |
| Concordat of 1801 | An agreement between Napoleon and the Pope that restored the Catholic Church in France and regulated its relationship with the state. |
| domestic reforms | Internal changes and improvements made to a nation's institutions, laws, and systems of governance. |
| educational system | The organized structure and institutions for teaching and learning established under Napoleon's reforms. |
| emperor | The supreme ruler of an empire; the title Napoleon assumed in 1804. |
| first consul | The chief executive position held by Napoleon in the French government after the coup of 1799, before he became emperor. |
| French Revolution ideals | Principles of liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty promoted during the French Revolution that Napoleon spread across Europe. |
| guerilla war | A form of irregular warfare conducted by small groups of combatants using tactics such as ambushes and sabotage against a larger, conventional military force. |
| limitation of women's rights | Restrictions placed on women's legal status, property ownership, and civil liberties under Napoleonic rule. |
| military tactics | Strategic methods and techniques used in warfare and military operations. |
| nationalist responses | Political and social movements in which people of a nation or ethnic group resist foreign rule and assert their own national identity and independence. |
| representative institutions | Governmental bodies designed to represent the people's interests, though often manipulated or limited in actual power. |
| scorched earth policy | A military strategy in which an army destroys resources, infrastructure, and supplies in territory it abandons to prevent the enemy from using them. |
| secret police | A covert law enforcement agency used to suppress opposition and maintain state control through surveillance and intimidation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| balance of power | A principle of international relations in which no single state or coalition becomes dominant enough to threaten the independence of others, maintained through strategic alliances and territorial arrangements. |
| Congress of Vienna | The 1814-1815 diplomatic conference where European powers negotiated the post-Napoleonic settlement to restore political stability and redraw the map of Europe. |
| Napoleonic rule | The period of European history dominated by Napoleon Bonaparte's military conquests and authoritarian governance, characterized by the spread of French power and influence across the continent. |
| nationalistic upheavals | Sudden political or social disturbances driven by nationalist sentiment and the desire of peoples to establish independent nation-states or assert national identity. |
| revolutionary upheavals | Sudden, violent political or social changes that overturn existing systems of government or society, often inspired by Enlightenment ideals or nationalist movements. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| emotions | Feelings and sentiments that Romantic thinkers emphasized as essential to moral improvement and human experience, in contrast to exclusive reliance on reason. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| mass politics | Political movements and activities involving large numbers of ordinary people rather than just elites, often driven by emotional appeals and nationalist sentiment. |
| Methodism | A Protestant religious movement founded by John Wesley that emphasized personal conversion, emotional faith, and moral improvement. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| reason | Rational thought and logical analysis, which Enlightenment thinkers prioritized but Romantic thinkers questioned. |
| religious revival | A movement emphasizing renewed faith, emotional religious experience, and spiritual renewal, occurring in Europe during the Romantic period. |
| Romantic Movement | An intellectual and artistic movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, emphasizing emotion, imagination, and individualism as alternatives to Enlightenment rationality. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| commercial rivalries | Competition among European states for trade, resources, and economic dominance that influenced diplomatic and military conflicts. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| French Revolution | A period of radical social and political upheaval in France (1789-1799) that fundamentally transformed French society and had lasting effects across Europe. |
| mass politics | Political movements and activities involving large numbers of ordinary people rather than just elites, often driven by emotional appeals and nationalist sentiment. |
| Napoleon Bonaparte | French military leader who seized power during the French Revolution and imposed French control over much of continental Europe before his eventual defeat. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| political order | The system of government, institutions, and power structures that organize a state and determine how authority is exercised. |
| political sovereignty | The supreme power and authority of a state to govern itself and make independent decisions without external interference. |
| reason | Rational thought and logical analysis, which Enlightenment thinkers prioritized but Romantic thinkers questioned. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bourgeoisie | The middle class that emerged during industrialization, consisting of merchants, manufacturers, and professionals who owned capital and means of production. |
| family structure | The organization and relationships within families, which were significantly altered by industrialization and changing economic conditions. |
| ideologies | Systems of beliefs and ideas, such as socialism, liberalism, and conservatism, that developed as responses to industrial and political revolutions. |
| industrial revolution | The period of rapid industrialization and mechanization that began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, fundamentally transforming economic and social life. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| iron and steel production | The manufacturing of iron and steel materials, key industries that drove industrial development and enabled construction and transportation advances. |
| mechanization | The replacement of manual labor with machines and mechanical processes in production. |
| political revolutions | Movements and upheavals that challenged existing political systems and structures during the age of industrialization. |
| social dislocations | Disruptions to traditional social structures and ways of life caused by rapid industrialization and urbanization. |
| state sponsorship | Government support and investment in industrial development, used by continental European states to promote industrialization. |
| textile production | The manufacturing of cloth and fabric goods, one of the first industries to be mechanized during the Industrial Revolution. |
| transportation systems | Infrastructure and technologies for moving goods and people, including railroads and canals that facilitated industrial expansion. |
| urbanization | The rapid growth of cities and the movement of populations from rural to urban areas as a result of industrial development. |
| working class | The social class of industrial workers and laborers who worked in factories and mines during the Industrial Revolution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bourgeoisie | The middle class that emerged during industrialization, consisting of merchants, manufacturers, and professionals who owned capital and means of production. |
| family structure | The organization and relationships within families, which were significantly altered by industrialization and changing economic conditions. |
| ideologies | Systems of beliefs and ideas, such as socialism, liberalism, and conservatism, that developed as responses to industrial and political revolutions. |
| industrial revolution | The period of rapid industrialization and mechanization that began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, fundamentally transforming economic and social life. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| innovations | New inventions, methods, or technologies that introduce significant changes to production, transportation, or communication systems. |
| iron and steel production | The manufacturing of iron and steel materials, key industries that drove industrial development and enabled construction and transportation advances. |
| mechanization | The replacement of manual labor with machines and mechanical processes in production. |
| political revolutions | Movements and upheavals that challenged existing political systems and structures during the age of industrialization. |
| social dislocations | Disruptions to traditional social structures and ways of life caused by rapid industrialization and urbanization. |
| state sponsorship | Government support and investment in industrial development, used by continental European states to promote industrialization. |
| technological developments | Advances in machinery, tools, and production techniques that transformed manufacturing and transportation in Europe from 1815 to 1914. |
| textile production | The manufacturing of cloth and fabric goods, one of the first industries to be mechanized during the Industrial Revolution. |
| transportation systems | Infrastructure and technologies for moving goods and people, including railroads and canals that facilitated industrial expansion. |
| urbanization | The rapid growth of cities and the movement of populations from rural to urban areas as a result of industrial development. |
| working class | The social class of industrial workers and laborers who worked in factories and mines during the Industrial Revolution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural practices | Methods and techniques used in farming; primitive or traditional practices hindered industrialization in some regions. |
| autocratic | A system of government in which one person holds absolute power without constitutional limits. |
| capitalists | Individuals who invest capital in business enterprises and industrial ventures to generate profit. |
| Corn Laws | British tariffs on imported grain that protected domestic agricultural interests; their repeal in 1846 reflected growing commercial and industrial influence in Parliament. |
| human capital | The skills, knowledge, and expertise of workers, including engineers, inventors, and capitalists who drive economic development. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| iron and steel production | The manufacturing of iron and steel materials, key industries that drove industrial development and enabled construction and transportation advances. |
| mechanization | The replacement of manual labor with machines and mechanical processes in production. |
| parliamentary government | A system of government where elected representatives in a parliament make laws and policy decisions. |
| private initiative | Economic activity and investment undertaken by private individuals and businesses rather than by government. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources extracted from colonies and foreign lands that were used in European commercial and industrial enterprises. |
| serfdom | A system of labor and land tenure in which peasants were bound to the land and owed obligations to noble landowners, codified in eastern Europe during this period. |
| textile production | The manufacturing of cloth and fabric goods, one of the first industries to be mechanized during the Industrial Revolution. |
| transport infrastructure | Systems of roads, canals, and railroads that enable the movement of goods and people necessary for industrial development. |
| transportation systems | Infrastructure and technologies for moving goods and people, including railroads and canals that facilitated industrial expansion. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| automobile industry | The manufacturing sector producing motor vehicles, a major new industry emerging from second-wave industrialization. |
| Bessemer process | A method for mass-producing steel by removing impurities from molten iron, a key innovation of the second industrial revolution. |
| business cycles | Recurring periods of economic expansion and contraction, including booms and recessions, that characterized late 19th-century economies. |
| chemical industry | The manufacturing sector focused on producing chemicals and chemical products, a major new industry of the second industrial revolution. |
| commercialization of agriculture | The transformation of farming from subsistence production to market-oriented production for profit and trade. |
| consumer goods | Products manufactured for purchase by individuals, including clothing, processed foods, and labor-saving devices produced during industrialization. |
| consumerism | The emphasis on the acquisition and consumption of material goods as a central feature of economic and cultural life. |
| department stores | Large retail establishments offering a wide variety of consumer goods, part of mass marketing strategies during industrialization. |
| distribution of goods | The system and process of transporting and delivering products from producers to consumers across regions. |
| electricity | A form of energy harnessed and distributed during the second industrial revolution to power factories and urban infrastructure. |
| factory system | A mode of production in which workers and machines are concentrated in centralized facilities to mass-produce goods. |
| global economic network | An interconnected system of international trade, commerce, and economic relationships linking different regions and nations. |
| government sponsorship | State support and investment in industrial development, as exemplified by Prussia's role in promoting rapid industrialization. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| infant mortality | The death rate of infants and young children, which declined during the industrial period due to improved living conditions and healthcare. |
| innovations | New inventions, methods, or technologies that introduce significant changes to production, transportation, or communication systems. |
| internal combustion engine | An engine that burns fuel internally to produce power, enabling the development of automobiles and other vehicles. |
| leisure opportunities | Recreational and entertainment activities made possible by increased wealth and free time resulting from industrialization. |
| mass marketing | Advertising and sales strategies designed to reach large populations and increase demand for consumer goods. |
| mass production | The manufacture of goods in large quantities using standardized processes and machinery, a defining feature of second-wave industrialization. |
| mechanization | The replacement of manual labor with machines and mechanical processes in production. |
| modes of production | The systems and methods by which goods are manufactured and distributed in an economy. |
| monopolies | Exclusive control of a market or industry by a single corporation or entity, used as a method to manage markets during the second industrial revolution. |
| national economies | Integrated economic systems within a country where regions are connected through trade, transportation, and communication networks. |
| population growth | The increase in the total number of people in a region or society over time. |
| quality of life | The overall standard of living and well-being of a population, including access to goods, services, and improved conditions. |
| railroad | A transportation system using steam-powered locomotives on tracks, essential for moving goods and people during industrialization. |
| second industrial revolution | The period of rapid industrial and technological advancement in the late 19th century, characterized by new industries and innovations like steel, electricity, and chemicals. |
| steamships | Steam-powered vessels that enabled faster, more reliable transportation of troops, goods, and officials across oceans to support imperial expansion. |
| tariffs | Taxes on imported goods used by governments to protect domestic industries and manage markets during the industrial period. |
| technology | Tools, machines, techniques, and systems developed to solve problems and accomplish tasks. |
| telegraph | An electrical communication technology that transmitted messages over long distances, revolutionizing information transfer during industrialization. |
| urbanization | The rapid growth of cities and the movement of populations from rural to urban areas as a result of industrial development. |
| Zollverein | A German customs union that eliminated tariffs between member states, facilitating economic integration and industrialization in Prussia. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural elites | Landowners and nobility in less industrialized regions who maintained economic and political power through control of agricultural production. |
| bourgeoisie | The middle class that emerged during industrialization, consisting of merchants, manufacturers, and professionals who owned capital and means of production. |
| class identity | A sense of shared interests, values, and social position among members of the same economic class. |
| companionate marriage | A marriage based on mutual affection, emotional intimacy, and partnership rather than purely economic necessity. |
| cult of domesticity | An ideology emphasizing women's roles as homemakers and mothers, centered on family life and domestic responsibilities. |
| divisions of labor | The specialization of workers in specific tasks or industries, creating distinct economic roles and social classes. |
| gender roles | Socially defined expectations and behaviors assigned to men and women in society. |
| leisure time | Time available for recreation and activities outside of work and domestic responsibilities. |
| mutual aid societies | Organizations formed by working-class members to provide financial assistance and support to members in times of hardship. |
| nuclear family | A family unit consisting of parents and their children, which was one of several family forms that served as a primary social and economic institution in early modern Europe. |
| overcrowding | The condition of cities receiving excessive population influx, resulting in inadequate housing and sanitation. |
| philanthropic associations | Organizations formed by the middle classes focused on charitable works and social improvement. |
| proletariat | The working class that emerged during industrialization, consisting of laborers who sold their labor for wages. |
| rural to urban migration | The movement of people from countryside agricultural areas to cities seeking industrial employment. |
| social welfare programs | Government initiatives designed to provide assistance and support to improve the quality of life for citizens. |
| socioeconomic changes | Shifts in social structure and economic conditions that alter class relationships and living standards during industrialization. |
| trade unions | Organizations of workers formed to collectively advocate for better wages, working conditions, and labor rights. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Concert of Europe | A system of international diplomacy established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain balance of power and prevent major conflicts among European great powers. |
| Congress System | The diplomatic framework established by the Concert of Europe for resolving international disputes through regular conferences among major European powers. |
| conservatism | A political ideology that emphasizes the preservation of traditional political and religious authorities and opposes rapid social change. |
| European political order | The system of political relationships, power structures, and governance arrangements among European states during the period 1815-1914. |
| human nature | In conservative ideology, the fundamental characteristics of humanity viewed as inherently flawed and not capable of perfection through reform. |
| liberal revolutions | Movements advocating for constitutional government, individual rights, and democratic reforms, which conservatives opposed. |
| nationalist revolutions | Movements seeking to establish independent nation-states or assert national identity, which conservatives attempted to suppress. |
| status quo | The existing state of affairs or current political and social order. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| autocratic | A system of government in which one person holds absolute power without constitutional limits. |
| Concert of Europe | A system of international diplomacy established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain balance of power and prevent major conflicts among European great powers. |
| Decembrist revolt | An 1825 uprising by Russian military officers and intellectuals seeking constitutional reform and the abolition of serfdom. |
| economic hardship | Severe financial difficulties and poverty affecting populations, often triggering social and political unrest. |
| emancipation of the serfs | The freeing of serfs from feudal bondage and obligations to landowners, particularly Alexander II's reforms in Russia. |
| July Revolution | The 1830 revolution in France that overthrew King Charles X and established a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe. |
| Polish rebellion | Uprisings by Polish nationalists against Russian and Prussian rule in the early 19th century. |
| revolutionary movements | Organized efforts by groups seeking to overthrow or fundamentally transform the existing political and social system. |
| revolutions of 1848 | A series of widespread revolutionary uprisings across Europe driven by demands for liberal reforms, national independence, and social change. |
| Russian Revolution of 1905 | A series of strikes, uprisings, and armed rebellion in Russia triggered by military defeat and social discontent, leading to constitutional reforms. |
| status quo | The existing state of affairs or current political and social order. |
| War of Greek Independence | The conflict (1821-1829) in which Greek revolutionaries fought to gain independence from Ottoman rule. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anarchism | A political ideology asserting that all forms of governmental authority are unnecessary and should be replaced with voluntary cooperation. |
| capitalism | An economic system based on private ownership of property, capital accumulation, and market exchange, which Marx and socialists critiqued. |
| citizenship | Full membership in a political community with associated rights and responsibilities. |
| enlightened self-interest | The liberal concept that individuals acting in their own rational self-interest will contribute to the greater good of society. |
| individual rights | Fundamental freedoms and protections belonging to each person, emphasized by liberal thinkers as essential to political society. |
| liberalism | A political ideology emphasizing popular sovereignty, individual rights, and limited government based on enlightened self-interest. |
| Marxist scientific socialism | Marx's systematic critique of capitalism based on historical materialism and the theory of class struggle as the driver of social change. |
| popular sovereignty | The principle that political power ultimately rests with the people, who consent to be governed. |
| radicalism | A political movement demanding fundamental and far-reaching changes to the political system, including universal suffrage and full citizenship rights. |
| redistribution of wealth | The socialist policy of reallocating society's resources and economic goods more equally among its members. |
| republicanism | A political ideology advocating for a form of government without a monarch, based on representation and popular sovereignty. |
| socialism | A political and economic ideology calling for collective or state ownership of resources and the redistribution of wealth to reduce inequality. |
| universal male suffrage | The right of all adult men to vote in political elections, regardless of wealth or property ownership. |
| utopian socialism | Early socialist thought that envisioned ideal, harmonious societies based on cooperative principles rather than systematic economic analysis. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abolitionism | A reform movement dedicated to ending the practice of slavery. |
| feminism | A social and political movement advocating for women's rights, equality, and liberation from gender-based discrimination. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| mass-based political parties | Political organizations with broad popular support that mobilized large segments of society to pursue social, economic, and political change. |
| nongovernmental reform movements | Independent organizations outside government structures that worked to address social problems such as poverty, serfdom, and slavery. |
| serfdom | A system of labor and land tenure in which peasants were bound to the land and owed obligations to noble landowners, codified in eastern Europe during this period. |
| slavery | The practice of holding people as property and forcing them to work without freedom, which abolitionist reform movements worked to eliminate. |
| social reform | Organized efforts to improve social conditions and address problems in society, often in response to industrialization and social inequality. |
| temperance movement | A reform movement that advocated for the reduction or elimination of alcohol consumption to address social problems. |
| trade unions | Organizations of workers formed to collectively advocate for better wages, working conditions, and labor rights. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| compulsory public education | Mandatory schooling provided by the government that all children are required to attend. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| infrastructure | Basic physical systems and facilities needed for a society to function, such as transportation, water, and sewage systems. |
| interventionist economic and social policies | Government policies that actively regulate and manage economic and social affairs to address problems and promote welfare. |
| laissez-faire | An economic policy in which governments minimize intervention in the economy, allowing market forces to operate freely. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| public health | Government policies and programs designed to protect and improve the health of the population. |
| public housing | Government-provided or subsidized residential accommodations for lower-income populations. |
| public lighting | Street and public illumination systems installed in cities to improve safety and visibility. |
| public transportation | Government-operated or regulated systems for moving people through cities, such as buses, trains, and trams. |
| sewage systems | Infrastructure designed to collect and dispose of wastewater and human waste from cities. |
| urban redesign | The restructuring and reorganization of city layouts and spaces to improve functionality and living conditions. |
| water systems | Infrastructure that supplies clean water to urban populations for drinking, sanitation, and other uses. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| balance of power | A principle of international relations in which no single state or coalition becomes dominant enough to threaten the independence of others, maintained through strategic alliances and territorial arrangements. |
| Concert of Europe | A system of international diplomacy established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain balance of power and prevent major conflicts among European great powers. |
| diplomatic order | A system of international relations and agreements established by major powers to govern their interactions and maintain stability. |
| European global empires | The vast overseas territories and colonies controlled by European powers during the age of imperialism, extending European political and economic dominance worldwide. |
| Great Powers | The major European nations with significant military, economic, and political influence in international affairs, typically including Britain, France, Russia, Prussia/Germany, and Austria. |
| imperialistic sentiments | Attitudes and beliefs supporting the extension of a nation's power and control over other territories and peoples. |
| liberal reforms | Political and social changes aimed at expanding individual rights, representative government, and constitutional limitations on state power. |
| materialism | A philosophical worldview emphasizing material conditions, economic factors, and physical reality as the primary drivers of social and historical change. |
| national unification | The political process of bringing together separate territories or states with shared national identity into a single unified nation-state. |
| nationalist sentiment | The strong identification with and loyalty to one's nation, often driving political movements and international tensions during the 19th century. |
| scientific realism | An intellectual movement emphasizing objective observation, empirical evidence, and material reality rather than idealism or romanticism. |
| second industrial revolution | The period of rapid industrial and technological advancement in the late 19th century, characterized by new industries and innovations like steel, electricity, and chemicals. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| acculturation | The process of adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of another group, in this case Western European society. |
| anti-Semitism | Prejudice, hatred, or discrimination against Jewish people. |
| chauvinism | Extreme and aggressive patriotism or belief in the superiority of one's own nation. |
| dual monarchy | A political system in which two separate kingdoms share a single monarch, as in Austria-Hungary. |
| ethnic minority | A group of people sharing a common culture, language, or ancestry that constitutes a smaller portion of a nation's population. |
| liberal reform | Political and social changes advocated by liberals seeking constitutional government, individual rights, and national self-determination. |
| national aggrandizement | The expansion and increase of a nation's power, territory, or influence. |
| national unification | The political process of bringing together separate territories or states with shared national identity into a single unified nation-state. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| racialism | The belief that human populations can be divided into distinct races with inherent differences, often used to justify nationalist claims. |
| romantic idealism | An emotional and imaginative approach to nationalism that emphasized national character, history, and cultural uniqueness. |
| Zionism | A form of Jewish nationalism advocating for a Jewish homeland, developed in response to European anti-Semitism. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| balance of power | A principle of international relations in which no single state or coalition becomes dominant enough to threaten the independence of others, maintained through strategic alliances and territorial arrangements. |
| Balkan nationalism | The rise of nationalist movements among Balkan peoples seeking independence and self-determination, drawing Great Powers into regional conflicts. |
| Bismarck | Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian statesman who used Realpolitik and military strategy to achieve German unification. |
| Bosnia-Herzegovina annexation crisis | The 1908 international crisis when Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, provoking Serbian and Russian opposition and increasing tensions. |
| Cavour | Camillo Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia whose diplomatic strategies were instrumental in achieving Italian unification. |
| Concert of Europe | A system of international diplomacy established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain balance of power and prevent major conflicts among European great powers. |
| Congress of Berlin | An 1878 international conference that addressed territorial disputes in the Balkans following the Russo-Turkish War. |
| Crimean War | A conflict (1853-1856) between Russia and an alliance of Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France that exposed Ottoman weakness and destabilized the European balance of power. |
| First Balkan War | A 1912-1913 conflict in which Balkan states fought against the Ottoman Empire, destabilizing the region and involving Great Power interests. |
| Garibaldi | Giuseppe Garibaldi, an Italian military leader whose popular campaigns and military victories contributed to Italian unification. |
| German unification | The political and territorial consolidation of German-speaking territories into a single nation-state under Prussian leadership in the 19th century. |
| industrialized warfare | Military conflict characterized by the large-scale use of industrial technology, mass production of weapons, and mechanized military forces. |
| isolating France | Bismarck's diplomatic strategy of using alliances to prevent France from forming powerful alliances against Germany. |
| Italian unification | The political and territorial consolidation of the Italian peninsula into a single nation-state in the 19th century. |
| mutually antagonistic alliances | A system of competing alliance blocs in which member nations are opposed to each other, increasing international tensions. |
| nationalist sentiment | The strong identification with and loyalty to one's nation, often driving political movements and international tensions during the 19th century. |
| Ottoman Empire | The multi-ethnic empire centered in Turkey that controlled much of southeastern Europe, western Asia, and North Africa until its decline in the 19th century. |
| political alliances | Formal agreements between European powers to coordinate foreign policy and military support, used to maintain balance of power. |
| Realpolitik | A political approach based on practical considerations and national interests rather than ideological or moral principles. |
| Reinsurance Treaty | A secret agreement between Germany and Russia signed by Bismarck to maintain friendly relations and prevent Franco-Russian alliance. |
| Second Balkan War | A 1913 conflict among Balkan states over territorial disputes, further destabilizing the region and heightening international tensions. |
| Three Emperors' League | An alliance among the rulers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, formed by Bismarck to maintain stability in Europe. |
| Triple Alliance | An alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, established by Bismarck as part of his system to isolate France. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biological change | The process by which living organisms and species transform and develop over time. |
| Darwin's theories | Charles Darwin's scientific explanations of biological change and evolution, including the theory of natural selection and the development of human beings as a species. |
| natural selection | The mechanism of evolution by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits to offspring. |
| racialist theories | Ideologies based on the belief that human races are fundamentally different and unequal, often used to justify discrimination and social hierarchies. |
| Social Darwinism | A pseudo-scientific ideology that applied evolutionary concepts to human societies, claiming that some races and nations were naturally superior and destined to dominate others. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Freudian psychology | A psychological theory developed by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the role of the irrational mind and the conflict between conscious and subconscious drives in human behavior. |
| modernism | An intellectual and cultural movement in the late 19th century characterized by rejection of objective knowledge and emphasis on relativism in values. |
| Newtonian physics | The classical physics framework developed by Isaac Newton based on the assumption of objective, deterministic laws governing nature. |
| positivism | A philosophical approach that emphasizes science as the only valid source of knowledge, relying on rational and scientific analysis of nature and human affairs. |
| quantum mechanics | A branch of physics developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that challenged Newtonian physics by describing the behavior of matter and energy at atomic scales. |
| relativism | A philosophical position that rejects absolute truths and objective knowledge, emphasizing that values and understanding are relative or subjective. |
| theory of relativity | Einstein's revolutionary theory that challenged Newtonian physics by proposing that space, time, and motion are relative to the observer's frame of reference. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| advanced weaponry | Superior military technology including rifles, machine guns, and ammunition that provided Europeans with military dominance over colonized populations. |
| anesthesia | Medical innovation that prevented pain during surgery, improving survival rates and enabling more effective medical treatment in colonial contexts. |
| antiseptics | Substances used to kill or inhibit microorganisms, reducing infection rates and improving medical outcomes for Europeans in Africa and Asia. |
| breech-loading rifle | A firearm loaded from the rear of the barrel, allowing faster firing rates and giving European soldiers a significant military advantage. |
| communication and transportation technologies | Innovations such as steamships and telegraphs that enabled Europeans to maintain control over vast imperial territories and coordinate colonial administration. |
| cultural superiority | The belief held by European imperialists that their civilization and culture were more advanced and civilized than those of colonized peoples. |
| European national rivalries | Competition and tensions between European nations that motivated them to acquire colonies and expand their global influence and power. |
| germ theory of disease | Louis Pasteur's scientific theory that diseases are caused by microorganisms, leading to improved medical practices that increased European survival in tropical climates. |
| imperialism | The policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, military force, or other means over foreign territories and peoples. |
| machine gun | An automatic weapon capable of rapid continuous fire, providing European forces with overwhelming firepower against colonized peoples. |
| markets for manufactured goods | Overseas territories and populations where European nations could sell their industrial products and expand their commercial influence. |
| Minié ball | A type of bullet used in 19th-century rifles that improved accuracy and firepower for European military forces. |
| Mission civilisatrice | The French concept that European nations had a civilizing mission to bring European culture, religion, and institutions to colonized territories. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| photography | A visual recording technology that documented colonial territories and peoples, supporting imperial knowledge and control. |
| public health projects | Organized medical and sanitation initiatives implemented in colonial territories that improved European health and survival rates. |
| quinine | A drug derived from tree bark that prevented and treated malaria, enabling European survival and settlement in tropical African and Asian regions. |
| racial superiority | The racist ideology used by European imperialists to justify their dominance over non-European peoples based on claims of biological and racial hierarchy. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources extracted from colonies and foreign lands that were used in European commercial and industrial enterprises. |
| Social Darwinism | A pseudo-scientific ideology that applied evolutionary concepts to human societies, claiming that some races and nations were naturally superior and destined to dominate others. |
| steamships | Steam-powered vessels that enabled faster, more reliable transportation of troops, goods, and officials across oceans to support imperial expansion. |
| strategic concerns | Military and geopolitical considerations that influenced European nations' decisions to establish colonies in strategic locations. |
| technological advances | Innovations in weaponry, communication, transportation, and medicine that gave Europeans military, logistical, and health advantages during imperial expansion. |
| telegraph | An electrical communication technology that transmitted messages over long distances, revolutionizing information transfer during industrialization. |
| The White Man's Burden | A concept used to justify European imperialism as a moral duty to civilize and develop non-European territories and peoples. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| alliance systems | Networks of political and military agreements between European powers that were strained by imperial competition. |
| anti-imperialism | Opposition to imperial expansion and colonial control, as articulated by thinkers like J.A. Hobson and Vladimir Lenin. |
| Berlin Conference | A diplomatic meeting held in 1884-1885 where European powers negotiated the partition and colonization of Africa. |
| Boxer Rebellion | An anti-imperialist uprising in China (1899-1901) against foreign imperial powers and their influence. |
| Congo Reform Association | An organization that opposed European imperial abuses and advocated for reform in the Congo. |
| diplomatic tensions | Strained relationships and conflicts between European states resulting from competing imperial interests and rivalries. |
| European imperialism | The extension of European political, economic, and cultural control over non-European territories and peoples during the 19th and early 20th centuries. |
| Fashoda crisis | A diplomatic confrontation in 1898 between France and Britain over control of the Nile Valley in Sudan. |
| imperial encounters | Interactions and contacts between European imperialists and non-European peoples that influenced European culture and society. |
| Indian Congress Party | A nationalist political organization in India that challenged British imperial rule and advocated for Indian independence. |
| Meiji Restoration | Japan's modernization and transformation in the late 19th century that enabled it to resist Western imperialism and become an imperial power itself. |
| Moroccan crises | International diplomatic conflicts in 1905 and 1911 over European imperial interests in Morocco. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements driven by the desire of people sharing a common identity, language, or culture to establish independent nation-states or assert national sovereignty. |
| Pan-German League | A German nationalist organization that advocated for German imperial expansion and influenced imperialism debates in Europe. |
| Sepoy Mutiny | An armed rebellion in 1857 by Indian soldiers (sepoys) against British imperial rule in India. |
| Zulu Resistance | The military and political opposition of the Zulu people against British imperial conquest in South Africa. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abstract art | Art that moves away from recognizable representation to emphasize subjective expression, form, and expressive qualities. |
| Cubism | An early 20th-century visual art movement that radically shifted aesthetic standards by depicting objects from multiple perspectives simultaneously. |
| Impressionism | A modern art movement that moved beyond realistic representation to emphasize subjective perception, light, and color through loose brushwork. |
| materialism | A philosophical worldview emphasizing material conditions, economic factors, and physical reality as the primary drivers of social and historical change. |
| Neoclassical | An artistic style based on classical Greek and Roman forms that emphasized reason, order, and idealized representation. |
| Post-Impressionism | A modern art movement that built upon Impressionism but emphasized subjective expression, form, and symbolic content over accurate representation. |
| Realism | A 19th-century intellectual and artistic movement emphasizing objective observation of reality and rejection of idealization or romanticism. |
| representational art | Art that aims to depict subjects in a recognizable, realistic manner that reflects shared idealized values. |
| Romanticism | An artistic and intellectual movement that emphasized emotion, intuition, nature, individuality, and the supernatural in reaction against Neoclassical rationalism. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| balance of power | A principle of international relations in which no single state or coalition becomes dominant enough to threaten the independence of others, maintained through strategic alliances and territorial arrangements. |
| Concert of Europe | A system of international diplomacy established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain balance of power and prevent major conflicts among European great powers. |
| diplomatic order | A system of international relations and agreements established by major powers to govern their interactions and maintain stability. |
| European global empires | The vast overseas territories and colonies controlled by European powers during the age of imperialism, extending European political and economic dominance worldwide. |
| Great Powers | The major European nations with significant military, economic, and political influence in international affairs, typically including Britain, France, Russia, Prussia/Germany, and Austria. |
| imperialist movements | Political and economic movements aimed at extending a country's power and control over other territories and peoples, often through colonization and domination. |
| materialism | A philosophical worldview emphasizing material conditions, economic factors, and physical reality as the primary drivers of social and historical change. |
| national unification | The political process of bringing together separate territories or states with shared national identity into a single unified nation-state. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements driven by the desire of people sharing a common identity, language, or culture to establish independent nation-states or assert national sovereignty. |
| Realism | A 19th-century intellectual and artistic movement emphasizing objective observation of reality and rejection of idealization or romanticism. |
| second industrial revolution | The period of rapid industrial and technological advancement in the late 19th century, characterized by new industries and innovations like steel, electricity, and chemicals. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Appeasement | A diplomatic policy of making concessions to an aggressive power to avoid conflict, notably pursued toward Nazi Germany in the 1930s. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| Communism | A political and economic ideology emphasizing collective ownership and state control that competed with democracy and fascism in 20th-century Europe. |
| Democracy | A system of government based on popular sovereignty and representation, representing one of the major ideological forces competing in 20th-century Europe. |
| Economic collapse | A severe breakdown of economic systems and structures, particularly referring to the Great Depression and post-war economic crises. |
| Extreme nationalism | An intense form of national pride and loyalty that prioritizes the nation above all other considerations, often leading to aggressive foreign policy. |
| Fascism | An authoritarian political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, rejection of democracy, centralized autocratic government, and often the glorification of war and a charismatic leader. |
| Genocide | The deliberate and systematic destruction of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. |
| Political instability | A state of uncertainty and disorder in government and political systems, characterized by weak institutions and frequent changes in power. |
| Racist ideologies | Systems of belief asserting the superiority or inferiority of certain racial groups, used to justify discrimination and violence. |
| Standard of living | The level of material comfort and access to goods, services, and opportunities available to individuals or populations. |
| total war | A form of warfare in which all of a nation's resources and population are mobilized for the war effort, blurring distinctions between military and civilian targets. |
| Transnational union | Political and economic organizations that unite multiple nations across borders, such as the European Union. |
| World War I | The global conflict from 1914-1918 involving major European powers and their allies, resulting in massive casualties and reshaping of the international order. |
| World War II | The global conflict from 1939-1945 involving Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and their allies against the Allied powers, resulting in unprecedented destruction and loss of life. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| disillusionment | A widespread loss of faith and confidence in traditional beliefs, values, and institutions following the enormous sacrifices of World War I. |
| economic production | The creation of goods and services, in which women became increasingly involved during the world wars. |
| lost generation | The generation of Europeans, particularly young men, who experienced disillusionment and cynicism as a result of World War I. |
| military mobilization | The organization and deployment of military forces and resources during wartime, in which women became increasingly involved during the world wars. |
| Newtonian universe | The classical physics framework based on Newton's laws that was challenged by early 20th-century physics, undermining faith in objective knowledge. |
| nuclear weapons | Weapons developed through advanced physics knowledge that emerged from the scientific developments of the early 20th century. |
| objective knowledge | The philosophical concept that truth and facts exist independently of individual perspectives or beliefs. |
| political mobilization | The organization of populations for political purposes, including women's increased participation during the world wars. |
| progress | The 19th-century belief that society and human civilization were advancing toward improvement and better conditions. |
| science and technology | Systematic study of the natural world and practical applications of scientific discoveries that yielded material benefits but also caused destruction. |
| World War I | The global conflict from 1914-1918 involving major European powers and their allies, resulting in massive casualties and reshaping of the international order. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Appeasement | A diplomatic policy of making concessions to an aggressive power to avoid conflict, notably pursued toward Nazi Germany in the 1930s. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| Communism | A political and economic ideology emphasizing collective ownership and state control that competed with democracy and fascism in 20th-century Europe. |
| Democracy | A system of government based on popular sovereignty and representation, representing one of the major ideological forces competing in 20th-century Europe. |
| diplomatic idealism | The approach to international relations based on principles of justice, cooperation, and moral ideals rather than purely strategic interests. |
| economic challenges | Financial difficulties and crises, such as economic collapse, that influenced political and social systems in the 20th century. |
| Economic collapse | A severe breakdown of economic systems and structures, particularly referring to the Great Depression and post-war economic crises. |
| Extreme nationalism | An intense form of national pride and loyalty that prioritizes the nation above all other considerations, often leading to aggressive foreign policy. |
| Fascism | An authoritarian political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, rejection of democracy, centralized autocratic government, and often the glorification of war and a charismatic leader. |
| Genocide | The deliberate and systematic destruction of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. |
| ideological beliefs | Systems of ideas and values that shape political, social, and economic worldviews, such as democracy, communism, and fascism. |
| interwar period | The period between World War I (1918) and World War II (1939), characterized by political instability, economic crisis, and the rise of authoritarian regimes across Europe. |
| objective knowledge | The philosophical concept that truth and facts exist independently of individual perspectives or beliefs. |
| peace negotiators | Diplomats and leaders who participated in post-war settlements, such as the Paris Peace Conference after World War I. |
| Political instability | A state of uncertainty and disorder in government and political systems, characterized by weak institutions and frequent changes in power. |
| Racist ideologies | Systems of belief asserting the superiority or inferiority of certain racial groups, used to justify discrimination and violence. |
| reason | Rational thought and logical analysis, which Enlightenment thinkers prioritized but Romantic thinkers questioned. |
| relationship between the individual and the state | The fundamental question of how much power the state should have over individuals and their freedoms, a central ideological conflict in 20th-century Europe. |
| science and technology | Systematic study of the natural world and practical applications of scientific discoveries that yielded material benefits but also caused destruction. |
| Standard of living | The level of material comfort and access to goods, services, and opportunities available to individuals or populations. |
| total war | A form of warfare in which all of a nation's resources and population are mobilized for the war effort, blurring distinctions between military and civilian targets. |
| Transnational union | Political and economic organizations that unite multiple nations across borders, such as the European Union. |
| World War I | The global conflict from 1914-1918 involving major European powers and their allies, resulting in massive casualties and reshaping of the international order. |
| World War II | The global conflict from 1939-1945 involving Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and their allies against the Allied powers, resulting in unprecedented destruction and loss of life. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| alliances | Formal agreements between nations to support each other militarily and politically, a key long-term cause of World War I. |
| casualties | Soldiers killed, wounded, or missing in combat; World War I saw unprecedented numbers of casualties due to new military technologies. |
| disillusionment | A widespread loss of faith and confidence in traditional beliefs, values, and institutions following the enormous sacrifices of World War I. |
| imperialism | The policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, military force, or other means over foreign territories and peoples. |
| July Crisis of 1914 | The series of diplomatic and military events in July 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand that triggered the outbreak of World War I. |
| military technology | Weapons, equipment, and innovations used in warfare, such as machine guns, poison gas, tanks, and aircraft that fundamentally changed combat tactics in World War I. |
| mobilization | The process of organizing and preparing a nation's entire population and economic resources for war. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| political participation | The involvement of citizens in the political process and decision-making of their nation. |
| social equality | The principle that all members of society should have equal rights, opportunities, and treatment. |
| total war | A form of warfare in which all of a nation's resources and population are mobilized for the war effort, blurring distinctions between military and civilian targets. |
| trench warfare | A military strategy involving fortified defensive positions with interconnected trenches, used extensively in World War I as a response to new military technologies. |
| women's suffrage | The right of women to vote, which was achieved in Western Europe through feminist efforts and in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union through government policy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Bolshevik Revolution | Lenin's communist revolution in October 1917 that seized power from the Provisional Government and established a communist state in Russia. |
| civil war | Armed conflict between communist forces (Reds) and their opponents (Whites) in Russia from 1918-1922. |
| communist state | A political system based on communist ideology where the state controls the means of production and aims to eliminate class distinctions. |
| February/March Revolution | The 1917 revolution that overthrew the Tsarist autocracy and established the Provisional Government. |
| incomplete industrialization | Russia's delayed and partial development of industrial economy compared to Western European powers, creating economic and social tensions. |
| Marxist-Leninist theory | A communist ideology combining Marx's theories of class struggle and revolution with Lenin's strategies for implementing communist revolution in less industrialized societies. |
| New Economic Policy | Lenin's economic compromise that allowed limited free-market principles and private enterprise to improve economic performance while maintaining communist political control. |
| Petrograd Soviet | The council of workers and soldiers in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) that played a key role in the Russian Revolution. |
| political stagnation | A lack of political progress or reform in the Russian government, contributing to discontent and revolutionary sentiment. |
| Provisional Government | The temporary government established after the February Revolution that was eventually overthrown by the Bolsheviks. |
| Russian Revolution | The series of revolutions in Russia (1917) that overthrew the Tsarist autocracy and led to the establishment of a communist state. |
| social inequality | Unequal distribution of wealth, power, and social status among different classes in Russian society. |
| Soviets | Councils of workers, soldiers, and peasants that emerged during the Russian Revolution and served as instruments of revolutionary power. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| democratic successor states | New independent nations created from the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires after World War I, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Yugoslavia. |
| imperial balance of power | The distribution of colonial territories and strategic influence among European imperial powers, altered by the mandate system following World War I. |
| League of Nations | An international organization created after World War I to maintain peace and resolve disputes between nations, weakened by the absence of major powers including the United States, Germany, and the Soviet Union. |
| mandate system | A system established by the League of Nations to administer former German and Ottoman territories as mandates held by victorious powers, particularly France and Great Britain. |
| reparations | Compensation payments imposed on defeated nations, particularly Germany, as punishment for war damages and losses. |
| Versailles settlement | The peace agreement ending World War I that imposed war guilt and reparations on Germany, creating political and economic instability in the postwar period. |
| Weimar Republic | The democratic German government established after World War I that struggled to achieve political and economic stability due to the harsh terms of the Versailles settlement. |
| Wilsonian idealism | President Woodrow Wilson's vision for international peace based on democratic principles, national self-determination, and collective security through the League of Nations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American investment capital | Funds provided by the United States to European economies after World War I, whose withdrawal following the 1929 crash caused financial collapse in Europe. |
| cooperative social action | A policy approach used in Scandinavian countries involving collective economic and social measures to address the Great Depression. |
| depreciated currencies | Currencies that declined in value, reflecting economic weakness and disrupting international trade patterns. |
| extremist movements | Radical political movements that gained strength as Western democracies failed to overcome the Great Depression. |
| Great Depression | A severe worldwide economic crisis in the 1920s and 1930s caused by weaknesses in international trade, monetary practices, and speculation that undermined Western democracies. |
| international trade | The exchange of goods and services between nations, which experienced disruption and weakness during the global economic crisis. |
| Keynesianism | An economic theory and policy approach adopted in Britain emphasizing government intervention to manage economic cycles and address depression. |
| monetary theories | Economic principles and practices governing the supply and use of money that contained weaknesses contributing to the global economic crisis. |
| National government | A political alliance formed in Britain combining parties across the political spectrum to address the economic crisis. |
| nationalistic tariff policies | Protective trade barriers imposed by individual nations to shield domestic industries, which disrupted international trade and contributed to economic weakness. |
| overproduction | The production of goods in excess of market demand, leading to falling prices and economic instability during the 1920s and 1930s. |
| Popular Front | A political alliance and policy approach in France and Spain combining left-wing parties and progressive policies to address economic crisis and extremism. |
| speculation | Risky investment practices based on anticipated price changes rather than fundamental value, which contributed to economic instability. |
| stock market crash | The sharp decline in stock prices in 1929 that triggered financial collapse and cut off American investment capital to Europe. |
| Western democracies | Democratic nations in Western Europe that were undermined and weakened by the Great Depression and the rise of extremist movements. |
| World War I debt | Financial obligations incurred by European nations during World War I that destabilized economies in the 1920s and 1930s. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| authoritarian dictatorship | A system of government in which power is held by a single leader or small group with little regard for constitutional limits or democratic processes. |
| charismatic leaders | Political figures who attract followers through personal magnetism and appeal rather than through institutional authority, often used by fascist regimes to consolidate power. |
| collectivization | Stalin's policy of consolidating individual peasant farms into large state-controlled collective farms (kolkhozes) to increase agricultural production. |
| Communism | A political and economic ideology emphasizing collective ownership and state control that competed with democracy and fascism in 20th-century Europe. |
| cult of personality | A system of promoting and glorifying a leader through propaganda and ideology, making the leader appear infallible and worthy of absolute devotion. |
| democratic institutions | The systems, structures, and processes that support democratic governance, including representative legislatures, constitutional protections, and rule of law, which fascist regimes rejected and dismantled. |
| economic instability | A period of economic uncertainty, inflation, unemployment, and financial crisis that created conditions favorable to the rise of authoritarian movements in post-World War I Europe. |
| economic modernization | The process of transforming an economy through industrialization, technological advancement, and reorganization of production systems. |
| Fascism | An authoritarian political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, rejection of democracy, centralized autocratic government, and often the glorification of war and a charismatic leader. |
| Five Year Plan | Stalin's centralized economic program that set ambitious production targets for Soviet industry and agriculture over five-year periods. |
| Franco | Francisco Franco, Spanish military leader who led fascist forces during the Spanish Civil War and established an authoritarian dictatorship in Spain. |
| Great purges | Stalin's campaign of terror in the 1930s involving mass arrests, executions, and deportations of perceived political rivals and enemies of the state. |
| Gulags | Soviet labor camps where political prisoners and other perceived enemies of the state were imprisoned under brutal conditions. |
| Hitler | Adolf Hitler, German Nazi dictator who rose to power in 1933 by exploiting economic crisis and national humiliation, establishing a totalitarian fascist regime. |
| interwar period | The period between World War I (1918) and World War II (1939), characterized by political instability, economic crisis, and the rise of authoritarian regimes across Europe. |
| kulaks | Land-owning peasants in the Soviet Union who were targeted for liquidation during Stalin's collectivization policies. |
| Mussolini | Benito Mussolini, Italian fascist dictator who rose to power in 1922 by exploiting postwar discontent and established the first fascist totalitarian state in Europe. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| postwar bitterness | The widespread resentment and disillusionment among populations following World War I, stemming from economic hardship, national humiliation, and the failure of peace settlements to meet expectations. |
| propaganda | Systematic dissemination of information, often misleading or biased, designed to promote a particular political ideology or leader and manipulate public opinion. |
| secret police | A covert law enforcement agency used to suppress opposition and maintain state control through surveillance and intimidation. |
| Spanish Civil War | A conflict from 1936-1939 in Spain between fascist forces led by Franco and republican/leftist forces, which served as a testing ground for fascist military tactics and ideologies before World War II. |
| terror | The systematic use of violence, intimidation, and fear by authoritarian regimes to suppress opposition and maintain control over the population. |
| totalitarian rule | A system of government in which the state exercises complete control over all aspects of public and private life, eliminating individual freedoms and political opposition. |
| totalitarianism | A system of government that seeks to control all aspects of public and private life, using propaganda, terror, and modern technology to maintain absolute power over the state and its citizens. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American isolationism | The United States policy of avoiding political and military involvement in European affairs during the interwar period. |
| Annexation of Austria | Nazi Germany's 1938 incorporation of Austria into the Third Reich, violating the Treaty of Versailles. |
| Appeasement | A diplomatic policy of making concessions to an aggressive power to avoid conflict, notably pursued toward Nazi Germany in the 1930s. |
| Extreme nationalism | An intense form of national pride and loyalty that prioritizes the nation above all other considerations, often leading to aggressive foreign policy. |
| Fascism | An authoritarian political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, rejection of democracy, centralized autocratic government, and often the glorification of war and a charismatic leader. |
| fascist states | Totalitarian nations governed by fascist ideology, including Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan during the interwar and World War II periods. |
| Italian invasion of Ethiopia | Italy's 1935 military conquest of Ethiopia, demonstrating fascist expansion and the League of Nations' inability to stop aggression. |
| Munich Agreement | The 1938 agreement between Britain, France, Germany, and Italy that allowed Nazi Germany to annex the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. |
| Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact | The 1939 agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union pledging mutual non-aggression and secretly dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. |
| Racist ideologies | Systems of belief asserting the superiority or inferiority of certain racial groups, used to justify discrimination and violence. |
| Remilitarization of the Rhineland | Nazi Germany's 1936 military reoccupation of the Rhineland, a demilitarized zone established by the Treaty of Versailles. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Allied victories | The military successes of the Allied powers (primarily Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States) against the Axis powers in World War II. |
| Axis powers | The alliance of fascist nations led by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan during World War II. |
| Blitzkrieg | A German military strategy of rapid, coordinated attacks using aircraft, tanks, and infantry to quickly overwhelm enemy forces, literally meaning 'lightning war.' |
| industrialized warfare | Military conflict characterized by the large-scale use of industrial technology, mass production of weapons, and mechanized military forces. |
| Operation Barbarossa | The German military invasion of the Soviet Union launched in 1941, representing a major campaign of World War II. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anti-Semitism | Prejudice, hatred, or discrimination against Jewish people. |
| Auschwitz | A major Nazi death camp in occupied Poland where over one million people, primarily Jews, were murdered during the Holocaust. |
| Axis powers | The alliance of fascist nations led by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan during World War II. |
| collaborationist governments | Governments that cooperated with Nazi Germany and other Axis powers, often by assisting in the persecution of targeted groups. |
| cultural identities | The shared beliefs, values, traditions, and characteristics that define a group of people and distinguish them from other groups. |
| death camps | Concentration camps established by Nazi Germany specifically designed for the systematic murder of prisoners, including Auschwitz. |
| fascist states | Totalitarian nations governed by fascist ideology, including Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan during the interwar and World War II periods. |
| Holocaust | The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by Nazi Germany and its collaborators between 1933 and 1945. |
| national identities | The sense of belonging to a nation, shaped by shared history, language, culture, and political institutions. |
| Nuremberg Laws | A series of discriminatory laws enacted by Nazi Germany in 1935 that stripped Jews of citizenship and legal rights. |
| racial order | A hierarchical system based on racial classification, used by Nazi Germany to justify the persecution and elimination of groups deemed racially inferior. |
| racism | The belief that certain races are inherently superior or inferior to others, used to justify discrimination and persecution. |
| Roma | An ethnic group targeted for persecution and murder by the Nazis as part of their racial ideology. |
| totalitarian powers | Authoritarian regimes that seek total control over all aspects of society, including politics, economy, culture, and individual life. |
| Wannsee Conference | A 1942 meeting of Nazi officials where the systematic genocide of European Jews, known as the 'Final Solution,' was coordinated and planned. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Brexit | Britain's withdrawal from the European Union, representing a member state's decision to leave the union and reassert national sovereignty. |
| Common Market | An economic union characterized by the elimination of trade barriers and the free movement of goods and services among member states. |
| economic integration | The process of combining national economies through trade agreements, shared markets, and coordinated economic policies. |
| euro | The common currency adopted by many EU member states, representing economic integration and a challenge to national monetary sovereignty. |
| European Coal and Steel Community | An economic alliance formed after World War II to coordinate coal and steel production among European nations as a means to promote economic recovery and prevent future conflict. |
| European Economic Community | An economic union established to create a common market among member states, allowing free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor. |
| European identity | A collective sense of belonging and shared values among European peoples, potentially fostered through EU membership and integration. |
| European Parliament | The directly elected legislative body of the European Union that represents EU citizens and creates EU law, representing a supranational authority that affects national governance. |
| European Union | A political and economic union of European countries that expanded to include former Eastern bloc nations after the Cold War. |
| free movement across borders | The EU policy allowing citizens to move, live, and work freely among member states without internal border controls, affecting national immigration and labor policies. |
| national identities | The sense of belonging to a nation, shaped by shared history, language, culture, and political institutions. |
| national sovereignty | The authority and independence of a nation-state to govern itself and make decisions without external interference, which EU member states must balance with union responsibilities. |
| nationalist rivalries | Competitive tensions and conflicts between nations driven by national interests and sovereignty concerns. |
| political integration | The process of unifying political institutions and decision-making structures across multiple states. |
| shared European identity | A collective sense of belonging and common cultural, political, and economic values among European peoples and nations. |
| Transnational union | Political and economic organizations that unite multiple nations across borders, such as the European Union. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anxiety | A pervasive sense of unease and psychological distress that characterized much of 20th-century thought and culture, intensified by the experience of war. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| communist | A political and economic ideology based on collective ownership and the absence of social classes, representing one of the major ideological forces in 20th-century Europe. |
| Democracy | A system of government based on popular sovereignty and representation, representing one of the major ideological forces competing in 20th-century Europe. |
| demographic changes | Shifts in population size, structure, and distribution over time, including changes in birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns. |
| disruptions of traditional social patterns | Breakdown of established social structures and hierarchies caused by war and modernization. |
| Economic collapse | A severe breakdown of economic systems and structures, particularly referring to the Great Depression and post-war economic crises. |
| Economic growth | Expansion of productive capacity and material wealth in European economies during the 20th century. |
| everyday life | The lived experiences and daily realities of ordinary people, altered by demographic, economic, and social changes in 20th-century Europe. |
| Fascism | An authoritarian political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, rejection of democracy, centralized autocratic government, and often the glorification of war and a charismatic leader. |
| freedom and justice | Competing concepts and definitions that shaped political ideologies and social movements in 20th-century Europe. |
| Intellectual and cultural movements | Organized developments in thought, art, and philosophy that questioned traditional assumptions about knowledge, reason, and morality during the 20th century. |
| liberal democratic | A political system based on democratic governance and individual freedoms, as opposed to authoritarian or communist systems. |
| objective knowledge | The philosophical concept that truth and facts exist independently of individual perspectives or beliefs. |
| polarized state order | An international system divided into opposing blocs or ideological camps, as occurred during the Cold War. |
| Political instability | A state of uncertainty and disorder in government and political systems, characterized by weak institutions and frequent changes in power. |
| reason | Rational thought and logical analysis, which Enlightenment thinkers prioritized but Romantic thinkers questioned. |
| relationship between the individual and the state | The fundamental question of how much power the state should have over individuals and their freedoms, a central ideological conflict in 20th-century Europe. |
| total war | A form of warfare in which all of a nation's resources and population are mobilized for the war effort, blurring distinctions between military and civilian targets. |
| Transnational union | Political and economic organizations that unite multiple nations across borders, such as the European Union. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anti-immigrant agitation | Political and social opposition to immigration, including protests and campaigns against immigrants and their presence in a country. |
| extreme nationalist political parties | Political parties that emphasize national identity and sovereignty, often opposing immigration and promoting the interests of native-born citizens. |
| immigration | The process of people moving into a country or region to settle, particularly into Europe after World War II. |
| migrant workers | People who move from their home country to work in another country, often temporarily, such as those from southern Europe, Asia, and Africa who moved to western and central Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. |
| migration | The movement of people from one place to another, particularly within Europe during the post-World War II period. |
| religious makeup | The composition of religious groups and denominations within a population or society. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abortion | The termination of pregnancy, a medical procedure that raised significant social and moral questions. |
| birth control | Medical technologies and methods used to prevent or regulate pregnancy. |
| cultural developments | Changes and evolution in societies' customs, beliefs, arts, and ways of life. |
| fertility treatments | Medical technologies and interventions designed to help individuals or couples achieve pregnancy. |
| genetic engineering | The manipulation of an organism's genetic material using biotechnology to alter inherited traits. |
| innovation | The introduction of new ideas, methods, or technologies that bring about change and advancement. |
| intellectual developments | Advances in thought, ideas, philosophy, and knowledge systems. |
| technology | Tools, machines, techniques, and systems developed to solve problems and accomplish tasks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| communication technologies | Innovations such as telephone, radio, television, computer, cell phone, and internet that enable the transmission of information across distances and connect people globally. |
| consumerism | The emphasis on the acquisition and consumption of material goods as a central feature of economic and cultural life. |
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and integration of economies, cultures, and societies across the world through technology, trade, and communication. |
| Green parties | Political movements in Western and Central Europe that challenged consumerism, promoted sustainable development, and opposed globalization by the late 20th century. |
| popular culture | Mass-produced cultural products and entertainment, including music, film, and consumer goods, that spread across societies and generated both enthusiasm and criticism. |
| sustainable development | Economic and social development that meets present needs without depleting resources or harming the environment for future generations. |
| transportation technologies | Innovations that facilitate the movement of people and goods across space, contributing to increased global connections and the spread of ideas. |
| U.S. technology | American technological innovations and products that were imported into Europe after World War II, contributing to cultural and economic change. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Abstract Expressionism | A mid-20th-century art movement emphasizing spontaneous, gestural abstraction and the artist's emotional expression through non-representational forms. |
| baby boom | A dramatic increase in birth rates following World War II, often promoted by government policies to encourage population growth. |
| Bauhaus | An influential early 20th-century architectural and design movement that combined modernist aesthetics with functional design principles. |
| civil rights movements | Organized social and political movements, including women's movements, gay and lesbian movements, and others, that worked to expand individual rights and freedoms. |
| consumer culture | A society organized around the production and consumption of goods and services, enabled by mass production, new technologies, and increased disposable income, featuring domestic comforts like electricity, indoor plumbing, and synthetic materials. |
| Cubism | An early 20th-century visual art movement that radically shifted aesthetic standards by depicting objects from multiple perspectives simultaneously. |
| Dadaism | An early 20th-century artistic movement characterized by absurdity, irrationality, and anti-art sentiment, often satirizing Western society and its values. |
| existentialism | A philosophical movement emphasizing individual existence, freedom, and responsibility, which gained prominence in post-1945 Europe as a response to the failures of science and reason during world wars and economic depression. |
| Futurism | An early 20th-century artistic movement that celebrated technology, speed, and violence while rejecting traditional aesthetic values. |
| modernism | An intellectual and cultural movement in the late 19th century characterized by rejection of objective knowledge and emphasis on relativism in values. |
| Pop Art | A mid-20th-century artistic movement that incorporated popular culture, mass media, and consumer goods as subjects, often satirizing Western materialism and commercial culture. |
| postmodernism | A cultural and artistic movement that emerged after 1945, characterized by skepticism toward grand narratives and traditional aesthetic standards, often questioning the values and assumptions of modernism. |
| revolts of 1968 | A series of widespread student and youth protests across Europe and the world against perceived bourgeois materialism, decadence, and establishment values. |
| Second Vatican Council | A major reform of the Catholic Church (1962-1965) that redefined church doctrine and practices and began to redefine its relations with other religious communities. |
| Surrealism | A 20th-century artistic movement that explored the subconscious and subjective states through dreamlike imagery and irrational juxtapositions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anxiety | A pervasive sense of unease and psychological distress that characterized much of 20th-century thought and culture, intensified by the experience of war. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| Communism | A political and economic ideology emphasizing collective ownership and state control that competed with democracy and fascism in 20th-century Europe. |
| Democracy | A system of government based on popular sovereignty and representation, representing one of the major ideological forces competing in 20th-century Europe. |
| demographic changes | Shifts in population size, structure, and distribution over time, including changes in birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns. |
| disruptions of traditional social patterns | Breakdown of established social structures and hierarchies caused by war and modernization. |
| Economic collapse | A severe breakdown of economic systems and structures, particularly referring to the Great Depression and post-war economic crises. |
| Economic growth | Expansion of productive capacity and material wealth in European economies during the 20th century. |
| ethnic cleansing | The forced removal or extermination of an ethnic group from a territory, often involving violence, displacement, and systematic persecution. |
| ethnic conflict | Violent or political tensions between different ethnic or cultural groups, often rooted in competition for resources, power, or recognition. |
| Fascism | An authoritarian political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, rejection of democracy, centralized autocratic government, and often the glorification of war and a charismatic leader. |
| freedom and justice | Competing concepts and definitions that shaped political ideologies and social movements in 20th-century Europe. |
| Intellectual and cultural movements | Organized developments in thought, art, and philosophy that questioned traditional assumptions about knowledge, reason, and morality during the 20th century. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements driven by the desire of people sharing a common identity, language, or culture to establish independent nation-states or assert national sovereignty. |
| Political instability | A state of uncertainty and disorder in government and political systems, characterized by weak institutions and frequent changes in power. |
| separatist movements | Political movements seeking to withdraw a region or group from an existing state to form an independent nation or autonomous region. |
| total war | A form of warfare in which all of a nation's resources and population are mobilized for the war effort, blurring distinctions between military and civilian targets. |
| Transnational union | Political and economic organizations that unite multiple nations across borders, such as the European Union. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| consumerism | The emphasis on the acquisition and consumption of material goods as a central feature of economic and cultural life. |
| economic miracle | The period of rapid economic growth in Western and Central Europe following World War II, stimulated by Marshall Plan aid and reconstruction efforts. |
| Marshall Plan | A U.S. economic aid program that provided funds to finance the reconstruction of industry and infrastructure in Western and Central Europe after World War II. |
| reconstruction | The process of rebuilding industry and infrastructure in Europe following World War II. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| arms race | The competitive buildup of military weapons and nuclear arsenals between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| covert actions | Secret military, intelligence, or political operations conducted by Cold War superpowers to advance their interests without public acknowledgment. |
| Iron Curtain | The political and military boundary dividing communist Eastern Europe from democratic Western Europe during the Cold War. |
| Korean War | A limited conflict in Asia (1950-1953) in which the United States and the Soviet Union supported opposite sides, representing Cold War tensions outside Europe. |
| nuclear war | Potential large-scale military conflict involving nuclear weapons, which posed an existential threat during the Cold War. |
| propaganda campaigns | Systematic efforts by Cold War superpowers to spread ideological messages and influence public opinion in support of their respective political systems. |
| Soviet invasion of Afghanistan | A limited conflict in Asia in which the Soviet Union directly intervened, representing Cold War tensions outside Europe. |
| United Nations | An international organization created after World War II to maintain international cooperation and peace among nations. |
| Vietnam War | A limited conflict in Asia in which the United States and the Soviet Union supported opposite sides, representing Cold War tensions outside Europe. |
| Yom Kippur War | A limited conflict in which the United States and the Soviet Union supported opposite sides, representing Cold War tensions outside Europe. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| central planning | An economic system in which the government centrally controls production, distribution, and pricing of goods rather than relying on market forces. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| COMECON | The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the Soviet-led economic organization that coordinated trade and economic policy among communist bloc countries. |
| de-Stalinization | The policy reforms initiated by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev to reduce the repressive practices and cult of personality associated with Stalin's rule. |
| General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade | An international trade agreement established to reduce tariffs and promote free trade among participating nations. |
| geopolitical alliances | Political and military partnerships between nations based on geographic location and shared strategic interests. |
| Hungarian Revolt | The 1956 uprising in Hungary against Soviet control and communist rule, suppressed by Soviet military forces. |
| International Monetary Fund | An international financial organization established to promote monetary cooperation and trade stability among nations. |
| Iron Curtain | The political and military boundary dividing communist Eastern Europe from democratic Western Europe during the Cold War. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| NATO | The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military and political alliance created by Western nations led by the United States to provide collective security against Soviet expansion. |
| Prague Spring | The 1968 reform movement in Czechoslovakia that sought to liberalize communist rule, ended by Soviet military intervention. |
| totalitarian regimes | Authoritarian governments that exercise complete control over all aspects of political, economic, and social life. |
| Warsaw Pact | The military alliance of communist Eastern European countries led by the Soviet Union, created as a counterweight to NATO. |
| World Bank | An international financial institution established to provide loans and development assistance to countries for economic reconstruction and development. |
| World Trade Organization | An international organization that regulates international trade and resolves trade disputes among member nations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| ethnic cleansing | The forced removal or extermination of an ethnic group from a territory, often involving violence, displacement, and systematic persecution. |
| ethnic conflict | Violent or political tensions between different ethnic or cultural groups, often rooted in competition for resources, power, or recognition. |
| Genocide | The deliberate and systematic destruction of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. |
| mass atrocities | Large-scale violent acts committed against civilian populations, often involving systematic killing, torture, or other severe human rights violations. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements driven by the desire of people sharing a common identity, language, or culture to establish independent nation-states or assert national sovereignty. |
| separatist movements | Political movements seeking to withdraw a region or group from an existing state to form an independent nation or autonomous region. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| consumerism | The emphasis on the acquisition and consumption of material goods as a central feature of economic and cultural life. |
| cradle-to-grave social welfare programs | Comprehensive government social services that provide support to citizens from birth through old age, including healthcare, education, and retirement benefits. |
| economic miracle | The period of rapid economic growth in Western and Central Europe following World War II, stimulated by Marshall Plan aid and reconstruction efforts. |
| economic stagnation | A prolonged period of slow or no economic growth, often accompanied by high inflation and unemployment. |
| Marshall Plan | A U.S. economic aid program that provided funds to finance the reconstruction of industry and infrastructure in Western and Central Europe after World War II. |
| welfare state | A system in which the government provides comprehensive social welfare programs and benefits to its citizens, funded through taxation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Berlin Wall | The barrier constructed by East Germany in 1961 that divided Berlin and symbolized the division between communist Eastern Europe and the capitalist West; its fall in 1989 marked a symbolic end to the Cold War. |
| capitalist economies | Economic systems based on private ownership, free markets, and profit motive, as opposed to communist command economies. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| Eastern bloc | The communist countries of Eastern Europe under Soviet political and military control during the Cold War. |
| European Union | A political and economic union of European countries that expanded to include former Eastern bloc nations after the Cold War. |
| glasnost | Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of openness and transparency that allowed greater freedom of speech and press in the Soviet Union. |
| hegemonic control | The dominance and influence of one power over others, particularly the Soviet Union's political and military control over Eastern and Central European satellite states. |
| perestroika | Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of restructuring the Soviet economic and political system to make it more efficient and flexible. |
| Soviet Union | The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the communist superpower that existed from 1922 to 1991. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| birth control pill | An oral contraceptive that gave women greater control over reproduction and family planning decisions. |
| feminism | A social and political movement advocating for women's rights, equality, and liberation from gender-based discrimination. |
| legislative representation | The presence and participation of women in government bodies and legislative institutions. |
| professional careers | Skilled occupations and employment opportunities in specialized fields that became increasingly accessible to women in the 20th century. |
| scientific means of fertilization | Technological methods such as in vitro fertilization that allow women to manage reproduction outside of natural conception. |
| Second-wave feminism | A feminist movement primarily from the 1960s-1980s that focused on workplace equality, reproductive rights, and challenging social and cultural norms affecting women. |
| women's suffrage | The right of women to vote, which was achieved in Western Europe through feminist efforts and in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union through government policy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cold War strategic alignments | The geopolitical positioning of nations during the Cold War that influenced the timing and process of decolonization in various territories. |
| decolonization | The process by which colonial territories gained independence from European imperial powers during the 20th and 21st centuries. |
| Indian National Congress | A major political organization in India that led the independence movement against British colonial rule. |
| Indonesian nationalism | The nationalist movement led by Sukarno that sought independence for Indonesia from Dutch colonial rule. |
| National Liberation Front (FLN) | The Algerian independence movement that fought against French colonial control. |
| national self-determination | The principle that peoples have the right to determine their own political status and form of government, promoted by Woodrow Wilson after World War I. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements driven by the desire of people sharing a common identity, language, or culture to establish independent nation-states or assert national sovereignty. |
| Viet Minh | Ho Chi Minh's Vietnamese independence movement that fought against French and later American colonial and military presence. |
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