7.3 National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions

Italian unification (the Risorgimento) was the 19th-century process that turned dozens of Italian states into a single kingdom (1861–1870). It happened mostly through Piedmont-Sardinia’s leadership under Count Camillo di Cavour and the popular campaigns of Giuseppe Garibaldi. Cavour used diplomacy (alliances, the Crimean War entry, and a deal with France) and state-building (economy, army, Zollverein-style links) to isolate Austria and gain northern territory after the Austro-Sardinian War (1859). Garibaldi led nationalist volunteers (the “Red Shirts”) to transfer southern kingdoms to Piedmont—allowing Victor Emmanuel II to become king in 1861. The Papal States and Rome were the last to join (1870). For AP purposes, focus on Cavour’s diplomatic Realpolitik plus Garibaldi’s mass appeal (CED KC-3.4.III.A). For a targeted Topic 7.3 review check Fiveable’s study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

The Crimean War (1853–56) made unification possible by breaking the old diplomatic order and weakening key powers that had kept Italy and Germany divided. It exposed Ottoman decline and shattered the Concert of Europe, so Austria lost diplomatic backing and prestige after isolating itself—making it harder for Austria to block Italian and German nationalists. Russia came out weakened, reducing its influence in Central Europe. That diplomatic reshuffle let Piedmont-Sardinia (Cavour) court new allies (notably France) to challenge Austrian control in Italy, and it created the conditions for Prussia and Bismarck to exploit Austro-Prussian rivalry later to unify Germany (Zollverein, Austro-Prussian War, Franco-Prussian War). This matches the CED: Crimean War → breakdown of Concert → openings for unification (KC-3.4.II.A; KC-3.4.III.A/B). For more review, see the Topic 7.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history). On the exam, connect cause (Crimean War) to diplomatic consequences and specific unification steps (Cavour, Garibaldi, Bismarck).

Cavour (Count Camillo di Cavour) was the prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia and the chief architect of Italian unification’s diplomatic side. He strengthened Piedmont by modernizing its economy and army, pursued Realpolitik diplomacy (including joining the Crimean War to gain a seat at the diplomatic table), and negotiated an alliance with Napoleon III. That alliance helped drive Austria out of Lombardy after the 1859 Austro-Sardinian War, allowing Piedmont to annex northern Italian states. Cavour then used diplomacy and political deals to incorporate central states; when Giuseppe Garibaldi’s popular military campaign took the south, Cavour arranged for those territories to be handed to Victor Emmanuel II, creating a united kingdom of Italy (with Rome added later in 1870). For the AP exam, focus on Cavour’s diplomatic strategies vs. Garibaldi’s military/popular role (KC-3.4.III.A). Review Topic 7.3 on Fiveable for a focused summary (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Cavour and Garibaldi were two complementary paths to Italian unification. Cavour (Piedmont–Sardinia’s prime minister) used diplomacy, state-building, and Realpolitik: he modernized the economy and army, made strategic alliances (notably with Napoleon III), and negotiated wars and treaties so that Victor Emmanuel II could legally claim new territories (CED KC-3.4.III.A). Garibaldi was a popular revolutionary general who led mass military campaigns (the “Red Shirts”)—especially the expedition in the south that brought the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies into the fold. Garibaldi’s volunteer victories created momentum and popular legitimacy; Cavour then used diplomacy and political maneuvers to incorporate those gains into a Piedmont-led kingdom, balancing republican impulses with monarchical state-building. For AP work, be ready to explain how both strategies together produced unification (see the Topic 7.3 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and practice with Fiveable’s AP questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Realpolitik = “realistic politics.” Bismarck put ideology aside and used practical tools—diplomacy, the Prussian army (modernized by industrialization), economic ties like the Zollverein, and staged crises—to make German states want to unite under Prussian leadership. He picked fights that would weaken rivals without provoking all of Europe: he isolated Austria in the Austro-Prussian War (1866) to exclude it from German affairs, then provoked France into the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) so southern German states agreed to join a unified German Empire under King Victor Emmanuel II’s counterpart, Wilhelm I. He also used parliament and voting rules tactically (manipulating democratic mechanisms) to legitimize outcomes. For AP Euro, connect this to Topic 7.3 KC-3.4.III.B and the sequence Austro-Prussian → Franco-Prussian Wars. Review the Topic 7.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to prep.

Bismarck’s key alliances: the Three Emperors’ League (1873, Germany-Austria-Hungary-Russia informal cooperation), the Dual Alliance (1879, Germany–Austria-Hungary) which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined (1882), and the Reinsurance Treaty (1887) with Russia. He also kept friendly ties with Britain through diplomacy and non-aggression. Why so many? After 1871 Bismarck used Realpolitik to secure German unification’s gains and preserve the European balance of power (KC-3.4.III.C). His goal was to isolate France diplomatically, avoid a two-front crisis, and prevent hostile coalitions by splitting potential rivals (Austria vs. Russia, and keeping Italy aligned). These pacts were pragmatic—flexible, secret when needed, and focused on maintaining peace and Germany’s security. When he was dismissed in 1890, the system unraveled and Europe moved toward mutually antagonistic alliances (KC-3.4.III.D). For more review, see the Topic 7.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Bismarck wanted to isolate France after 1871 because he feared French revanchism—the desire to recover Alsace-Lorraine and reverse the humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. A hostile France, especially if allied with other great powers (like Russia or Britain), could threaten the newly unified German Empire’s security and upset the balance of power. Using Realpolitik, Bismarck built a web of treaties (Three Emperors’ League, Dual Alliance/Triple Alliance, and the Reinsurance Treaty) to keep France diplomatically alone and prevent a hostile coalition from forming (KC-3.4.III.C). Isolating France let Germany consolidate unification and avoid a two-front diplomatic crisis while European diplomacy remained fluid. For review tied to the CED and examples of Bismarck’s alliance system, see the Topic 7.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth). For more practice, check Fiveable’s unit overview and 1000+ practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7) (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

When Kaiser Wilhelm II dismissed Otto von Bismarck in 1890, it removed the main architect of Germany’s cautious, system-based diplomacy. Bismarck’s Realpolitik relied on the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia and a web of agreements (Three Emperors’ League, Triple Alliance) that kept France diplomatically isolated and limited great-power rivalry (CED KC-3.4.III.C). After 1890 Germany pursued Weltpolitik—more aggressive naval and colonial goals—and let the Reinsurance Treaty lapse. That shift pushed Russia toward France, encouraged Britain to worry about German naval buildup, and helped turn flexible agreements into rigid, mutually suspicious blocs (Triple Entente vs. Triple Alliance). Combined with rising nationalism in the Balkans and crises after 1900, this alliance polarization converted regional tensions into a general European war (CED KC-3.4.III.D–E). For AP practice on causation and alliances, see the Topic 7.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth), the Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7), and 1000+ practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

The Balkans were a hotspot because several forces overlapped. The Ottoman Empire’s long decline after the Crimean War left a power vacuum (Congress of Berlin, 1878) that encouraged ethnic groups to seek nationhood (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece). Rising nationalism and competing nationalisms—Serbian Pan-Slavism vs. Austro-Hungarian multiethnic rule—created local conflicts. Great Power rivalry turned local disputes into international crises: Russia backed Slavic states, Austria-Hungary tried to stop Serbian influence (Bosnia-Herzegovina annexation crisis, 1908), and Germany/France/Britain had their own strategic interests. The result: a string of Balkan crises and two Balkan Wars that dragged alliances into confrontation and raised tensions before 1914 (KC-3.4.III.E). For AP prep, focus on how Ottoman weakness, nationalist movements (Serbia), and Great Power competition interacted—this is a common DBQ/LEQ/SAQ theme. See the Topic 7.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

It mattered because the 1908 Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina ripped open the fragile post-1878 settlement (Congress of Berlin) and intensified Balkan nationalism and alliance tensions. Austria-Hungary formally took territory it had been administering, which enraged Serbian nationalists who wanted Bosnia for a Greater Serbia and embarrassed the Ottoman Empire, showing its continuing weakness (KC-3.4.II.A, III.E). Russia felt diplomatically humiliated after failing to back Serbia effectively, and the crisis pushed the Great Powers into sharper, more antagonistic alignments—exactly the pattern that replaced Bismarck’s balance-of-power system (KC-3.4.III.D). In short, the annexation turned a local nationalist flashpoint into an international crisis that made a wider European war more likely. For AP study, this is a key illustrative example of Topic 7.3—see the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Start with a clear thesis: answer the prompt (e.g., “German unification resulted from Realpolitik-driven statecraft by Prussia, economic integration, and nationalist movements”) and put it in your intro or conclusion. Contextualize briefly (post-1848 failures, Concert of Europe weakening after Crimean War). Use at least four documents to build an argument—summarize each, link it to a cause (Bismarck/Realpolitik, Zollverein/economic ties, Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars, rising nationalism). Analyze POV/purpose for two documents (how a Prussian minister vs. a liberal nationalist frames motives). Add one specific outside fact (e.g., Zollverein growth, 1866 Austro-Prussian war, 1871 proclamation of Kaiser) to earn the extra evidence point. Show complexity: acknowledge multiple factors and sequence (diplomacy and war after economic and political groundwork). Remember DBQ rules: use ≥4 docs, 1 outside evidence, source two docs, craft a line of reasoning; you’ll have 60 minutes (including 15-minute reading). For quick review, check Fiveable’s Topic 7.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

The Concert of Europe broke down after the Crimean War (1853–56), which exposed great-power rivalry and weakened the old system of cooperation. That collapse let ambitious national leaders act without a stabilizing European police force. In Italy, Cavour used diplomacy and a Piedmont-Sardinia-led alliance system (with French help against Austria) while Garibaldi supplied popular military pressure to unify Italian states. In Germany, Bismarck exploited shifting alliances and limited wars (Austro-Prussian 1866, Franco-Prussian 1870–71), Realpolitik, and the economic Zollverein to create a united German Empire. So: the Concert’s failure removed constraints on intervention and alliance-building, turning regional nationalism into state-building opportunities. For AP writing, connect KC-3.4.II.A and KC-3.4.III.A–B in DBQs/LEQs and use specific evidence (wars, leaders, treaties). For a quick review, check the Topic 7.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Because the Ottoman Empire was weakening after the Crimean War, the Balkans became a tinderbox of nationalist movements (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece) and competing claims. Local revolts threatened lines of influence, trade routes, and strategic territory, so each Great Power (Russia, Austria-Hungary, Britain, Germany, France) felt compelled to protect its allies, prestige, or access (e.g., Russia’s Pan-Slavism vs. Austria-Hungary’s concern about Slavic nationalism). Bismarck’s alliance system and the breakdown of the Concert of Europe made crises diplomatic tests: a local event could shift the balance of power, so powers intervened at Congresses (like Berlin 1878) or during incidents (Bosnia 1908). These repeated interventions turned Balkan instability into a European problem and helped create the antagonistic alliances that led to 1914. For a focused Topic 7.3 review, see Fiveable’s study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Bismarck’s alliance system had mixed effects. Short-term, his diplomatic juggling (Three Emperors’ League, Reinsurance Treaty, Triple Alliance) stabilized Europe after 1871 by isolating France and preserving the balance of power (CED KC-3.4.III.C). But the system’s complexity and secrecy created long-term problems: rigid, overlapping commitments made crises more likely to involve multiple powers; secret treaties bred mistrust; and when Bismarck was dismissed in 1890, the web unraveled. Without his careful diplomacy, alliances hardened into two antagonistic blocs (France seeking partners, Germany tied to Austria-Hungary), fueling an arms competition and making localized Balkan tensions escalate into wider confrontations (CED KC-3.4.III.D–E). For AP exam connections, this links to Unit 7 Learning Objective D and is a strong evidence point for essays on how alliance diplomacy increased international tension before WWI. Review the Topic 7.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/national-unification-diplomatic-tensions/study-guide/2F0VoSDx98Wa3iRk8sth) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).