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7.3 National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions

5 min readjanuary 30, 2023

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

The demonstrated the weakness of the Ottoman Empire and contributed to the breakdown of the , thereby creating the conditions in which Italy and Germany could be unified after centuries of fragmentation. Ultimately, the failed to address growing nationalism in Italy and Germany, an issue that led to the and the , which resulted in the and Germany as nation-states, respectively.

Unification of Italy

Unification was a well-recognized idea in Italy, with enduring support from romantic nationalists like . He began a group called , mostly focusing on the future generations of Italy, to encourage them to unify. 

The major steps to unification included:

  1. The establishment of a strong, centralized state:

In Italy, this was under the leadership of and his Prime Minister, . Cavour orchestrated strategic alliances and manipulated events in Italy to organize the unification movement.

2. The removal of foreign influence:

Foreign influence consisted of Spain in Naples and Sicily; France in Genoa, Alsace, and Lorraine; and Austria in Lombardy and Venetia. Giuseppe Garibaldi, a liberal nationalist, organized an untrained military called the . With nearly a thousand men, the removed the from Sicily and Naples. Cavour allied with the French to drive Austria from Lombardy. Together, Cavour’s diplomatic strategies and Garibaldi’s military campaigns spurred Italian unification.

3. Official unification in 1871:

Cavour and allowed the Italian provinces to vote for unification. With their only other options being controlled by foreign powers, many voted to support a unified Italy.

The final two provinces to unify consisted of Rome and Venetia. Italy finally took Venice after electing not to help Austria in the . France removed its protective force from Rome to fight against Germany in the Franco-Prussian War, allowing Cavour to take over.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2FItalian-unification.gif?alt=media&token=ecdbf4fd-66a0-40b6-8e72-36c801bd2e1d

Unification of Germany

German unification was the sole goal of Prussia’s Chancellor, . The , the economic unity of the German states, inspired the idea of nationalism. Bismarck used the nationalist movement to increase Prussia’s power and began working to eliminate foreign influence, much like the process of unification in Italy.

Moreover, Bismarck utilized , a political philosophy that emphasizes practical and material factors as the basis for making decisions in politics rather than ideological or ethical considerations. It prioritizes national interests, power, and security above moral or ethical principles. For Bismarck, this meant employing diplomacy, industrialized warfare, and manipulating democratic mechanisms for German unification.

  1. Danish War (1864): Prussia started a conflict with Denmark over the rightful succession of leadership in the German-speaking territories of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia won and created the North German Confederation in 1866.

  2. (1866): Bismarck engaged Prussia in war with Austria over the administration of the new German territories of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia’s aggressive actions toward the Austrians sparked the conflict, and the Prussians won decisively - further weakening the Austrian Empire (opening the door for ).

  3. Franco-Prussian War (1870): Bismarck convinced the cousin of Wilhelm I, Leopold, to stake his claim to the Spanish throne, which France protested. Bismarck intercepted a letter from Wilhelm to Napoleon III that announced his cousin would step down. He sent his own letter full of insults to goad the French into declaring war. Prussia won with demands by capturing Napoleon III in battle. As a result, France ceded Alsace and Lorraine, paid reparations (France will get them back in WWI!), and had to recognize Germany as a legitimate country.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2Fgermany%20unification.jpg?alt=media&token=1e038dbc-cf8c-445e-9435-cfbc1673bff3

Diplomatic Tensions

France and Germany

Not only was France forced to sign a resolution recognizing Germany as a legitimate country, but they had to do so at the itself (which was quite embarrassing for the French). In addition to paying reparations and ceding territory, the French carried tension and colonial conflicts with Germany into WWI.

Austria and Hungary

Austria dealt with internal tensions between different nationalities represented in their empire, particularly the Hungarians. They solved these tensions by signing the  with the Hungarians to create a

The Crimean War

The (1853-1856) between Russia and a coalition of France, Great Britain, and Austria resulted in early, but those dissipated after a change in the Russian monarch.

Russia wanted to extend its influence in the Ottoman Empire by having control over holy sites of Christianity (the Ottomans actually gave that control to France) and invaded two provinces of the Ottoman Empire. France, Britain, and Austria came to the aid of the Ottomans, fearing Russian overreach. The war ended benevolently when died. His son, , took the throne and ended the conflict.

The peaceful resolution fostered a positive relationship between Russia, Great Britain, and France for the future.

The Balkans

The First Balkan War of 1912-1913 included the Ottoman Empire and several Balkan states: Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro. Balkan states sought independence from Ottoman rule and successfully pushed the Ottoman Empire out of most of .

Later in 1913, the Second Balkan War occurred between Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania. The conflict sparked due to disagreements over the division of territories won in the First Balkan War, with Bulgaria attacking its former allies, Serbia and Greece. Bulgaria lost.

The two Balkan Wars fueled nationalist tensions and drew the Great Powers into a series of alliances and crises that exploded in World War I.

Key Terms to Review (31)

Alexander II

: Alexander II was the Emperor of Russia from 1855 until his assassination in 1881. He is best known for his series of reforms, including the emancipation of serfs, which significantly changed Russian society.

Austro-Prussian War

: The Austro-Prussian War was a seven-week war in 1866 between Prussia and Austria, resulting in Prussian dominance over Germany. It played a crucial role in German unification under Prussia's leadership.

Austro-Prussian War (1866)

: The Austro-Prussian War, also known as Seven Weeks' War, was a conflict between Austria and Prussia that resulted in Prussia's dominance over the German states.

Compromise of 1867

: The Compromise of 1867, also known as Ausgleich, established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. It gave Hungarians more autonomy while maintaining Franz Joseph I as ruler over both regions.

Concert of Europe

: The Concert of Europe was a system established in 1815 that represented the balance of power among major European nations after the Napoleonic Wars. It aimed to prevent any single country from dominating others and maintain peace across Europe.

Count Camillo Cavour

: Count Camillo Cavour was a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification. He was the Prime Minister of Sardinia, and his diplomatic skills helped to set the stage for a united Italy.

Crimean War

: The Crimean War (1853-1856) was a military conflict fought between Russia and an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. It was primarily over religious rights in the Holy Land but also involved territorial disputes in Eastern Europe.

Danish War (1864)

: The Danish War, also known as the Second Schleswig War, was a conflict in which Prussia and Austria fought against Denmark to gain control of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.

Diplomatic Tensions

: Diplomatic tensions refer to strained relations between countries due to disagreements on international issues, often leading to conflicts or wars if not resolved peacefully.

Dual Monarchy

: The Dual Monarchy refers to the political arrangement that existed between Austria and Hungary from 1867 to 1918, where both nations were ruled by a single monarch but maintained separate parliaments and administrations.

First Balkan War (1912-1913)

: The First Balkan War was a conflict where the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria) fought against the Ottoman Empire to gain territories.

Franco-Prussian War of 1870

: The Franco-Prussian War was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. The war resulted in a decisive Prussian victory, leading to the unification of Germany.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

: Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian general, patriot, and one of the greatest guerrilla warriors of all time. He played a significant role in the unification of Italy.

Giuseppe Mazzini

: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian politician, journalist, and activist who played a crucial role in the unification of Italy. He is known for founding the nationalist group Young Italy.

Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles

: The Hall of Mirrors is a grand baroque-style gallery and one of the most famous rooms in the Palace of Versailles, France. It was used for lavish receptions and ceremonies, including the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.

Italian War of 1859

: The Italian War of 1859 was a conflict fought by France and Sardinia against Austria. It resulted in significant territorial gains for Sardinia, paving the way for Italian unification.

King Victor Emmanuel II

: King Victor Emmanuel II was the king of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia from 1849 to 1861. He became the first king of a united Italy since the 6th century, a title he held until his death in 1878.

North German Confederation (1866)

: The North German Confederation was a federation established by Otto von Bismarck that included all German states north of River Main excluding Austria. It laid groundwork for modern Germany's unification.

Otto von Bismarck

: Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian statesman who masterminded the unification of Germany in 1871 and served as its first chancellor until 1890.

Piedmont-Sardinia

: Piedmont-Sardinia refers to one of the pre-unification states on the Italian Peninsula. It played an instrumental role in leading efforts towards creating a unified Italy due to its relative strength among other Italian states.

Realpolitik

: Realpolitik refers to politics or diplomacy based primarily on power and practical considerations, rather than ideological or moral ones.

Red Shirts

: The Red Shirts were volunteers who followed Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Risorgimento (Italian Unification). They were named after their distinctive red shirts which they wore as uniforms.

Second Balkan War (1913)

: The Second Balkan War was a conflict which broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the spoils of the First Balkan War, attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece, in 1913.

Spanish Bourbons

: The Spanish Bourbons were a royal family that ruled Spain from the 18th century to the present day, with some interruptions. They are known for their efforts in modernizing Spain and strengthening its international standing.

The Balkans

: The Balkans is a geographical region in Southeast Europe with various cultural and historical identities. It includes countries like Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece etc.

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

: The Crimean War was a conflict fought between Russia against an alliance formed by Turkey, Britain, France and Sardinia. It was primarily over religious control in Palestine which was then under Ottoman rule.

Tsar Nicholas I

: Tsar Nicholas I ruled Russia from 1825 until his death in 1855. He was known for his repressive policies and resistance against reform.

Unification of Germany

: The unification of Germany refers to the process by which numerous independent German states were brought together under the leadership of Prussia into a single nation-state known as the German Empire in 1871.

Unification of Italy

: The Unification of Italy refers to political and social movements that consolidated different states on Italian peninsula into a single state known as Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

Young Italy

: Young Italy was a political movement founded in 1831 by Giuseppe Mazzini. The goal of this movement was to create a united Italian republic through promoting a general insurrection in the Italian reactionary states and in the lands occupied by the Austrian Empire.

Zollverein

: The Zollverein was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories during the 19th century.

7.3 National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions

5 min readjanuary 30, 2023

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

The demonstrated the weakness of the Ottoman Empire and contributed to the breakdown of the , thereby creating the conditions in which Italy and Germany could be unified after centuries of fragmentation. Ultimately, the failed to address growing nationalism in Italy and Germany, an issue that led to the and the , which resulted in the and Germany as nation-states, respectively.

Unification of Italy

Unification was a well-recognized idea in Italy, with enduring support from romantic nationalists like . He began a group called , mostly focusing on the future generations of Italy, to encourage them to unify. 

The major steps to unification included:

  1. The establishment of a strong, centralized state:

In Italy, this was under the leadership of and his Prime Minister, . Cavour orchestrated strategic alliances and manipulated events in Italy to organize the unification movement.

2. The removal of foreign influence:

Foreign influence consisted of Spain in Naples and Sicily; France in Genoa, Alsace, and Lorraine; and Austria in Lombardy and Venetia. Giuseppe Garibaldi, a liberal nationalist, organized an untrained military called the . With nearly a thousand men, the removed the from Sicily and Naples. Cavour allied with the French to drive Austria from Lombardy. Together, Cavour’s diplomatic strategies and Garibaldi’s military campaigns spurred Italian unification.

3. Official unification in 1871:

Cavour and allowed the Italian provinces to vote for unification. With their only other options being controlled by foreign powers, many voted to support a unified Italy.

The final two provinces to unify consisted of Rome and Venetia. Italy finally took Venice after electing not to help Austria in the . France removed its protective force from Rome to fight against Germany in the Franco-Prussian War, allowing Cavour to take over.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2FItalian-unification.gif?alt=media&token=ecdbf4fd-66a0-40b6-8e72-36c801bd2e1d

Unification of Germany

German unification was the sole goal of Prussia’s Chancellor, . The , the economic unity of the German states, inspired the idea of nationalism. Bismarck used the nationalist movement to increase Prussia’s power and began working to eliminate foreign influence, much like the process of unification in Italy.

Moreover, Bismarck utilized , a political philosophy that emphasizes practical and material factors as the basis for making decisions in politics rather than ideological or ethical considerations. It prioritizes national interests, power, and security above moral or ethical principles. For Bismarck, this meant employing diplomacy, industrialized warfare, and manipulating democratic mechanisms for German unification.

  1. Danish War (1864): Prussia started a conflict with Denmark over the rightful succession of leadership in the German-speaking territories of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia won and created the North German Confederation in 1866.

  2. (1866): Bismarck engaged Prussia in war with Austria over the administration of the new German territories of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia’s aggressive actions toward the Austrians sparked the conflict, and the Prussians won decisively - further weakening the Austrian Empire (opening the door for ).

  3. Franco-Prussian War (1870): Bismarck convinced the cousin of Wilhelm I, Leopold, to stake his claim to the Spanish throne, which France protested. Bismarck intercepted a letter from Wilhelm to Napoleon III that announced his cousin would step down. He sent his own letter full of insults to goad the French into declaring war. Prussia won with demands by capturing Napoleon III in battle. As a result, France ceded Alsace and Lorraine, paid reparations (France will get them back in WWI!), and had to recognize Germany as a legitimate country.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2Fgermany%20unification.jpg?alt=media&token=1e038dbc-cf8c-445e-9435-cfbc1673bff3

Diplomatic Tensions

France and Germany

Not only was France forced to sign a resolution recognizing Germany as a legitimate country, but they had to do so at the itself (which was quite embarrassing for the French). In addition to paying reparations and ceding territory, the French carried tension and colonial conflicts with Germany into WWI.

Austria and Hungary

Austria dealt with internal tensions between different nationalities represented in their empire, particularly the Hungarians. They solved these tensions by signing the  with the Hungarians to create a

The Crimean War

The (1853-1856) between Russia and a coalition of France, Great Britain, and Austria resulted in early, but those dissipated after a change in the Russian monarch.

Russia wanted to extend its influence in the Ottoman Empire by having control over holy sites of Christianity (the Ottomans actually gave that control to France) and invaded two provinces of the Ottoman Empire. France, Britain, and Austria came to the aid of the Ottomans, fearing Russian overreach. The war ended benevolently when died. His son, , took the throne and ended the conflict.

The peaceful resolution fostered a positive relationship between Russia, Great Britain, and France for the future.

The Balkans

The First Balkan War of 1912-1913 included the Ottoman Empire and several Balkan states: Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro. Balkan states sought independence from Ottoman rule and successfully pushed the Ottoman Empire out of most of .

Later in 1913, the Second Balkan War occurred between Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania. The conflict sparked due to disagreements over the division of territories won in the First Balkan War, with Bulgaria attacking its former allies, Serbia and Greece. Bulgaria lost.

The two Balkan Wars fueled nationalist tensions and drew the Great Powers into a series of alliances and crises that exploded in World War I.

Key Terms to Review (31)

Alexander II

: Alexander II was the Emperor of Russia from 1855 until his assassination in 1881. He is best known for his series of reforms, including the emancipation of serfs, which significantly changed Russian society.

Austro-Prussian War

: The Austro-Prussian War was a seven-week war in 1866 between Prussia and Austria, resulting in Prussian dominance over Germany. It played a crucial role in German unification under Prussia's leadership.

Austro-Prussian War (1866)

: The Austro-Prussian War, also known as Seven Weeks' War, was a conflict between Austria and Prussia that resulted in Prussia's dominance over the German states.

Compromise of 1867

: The Compromise of 1867, also known as Ausgleich, established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. It gave Hungarians more autonomy while maintaining Franz Joseph I as ruler over both regions.

Concert of Europe

: The Concert of Europe was a system established in 1815 that represented the balance of power among major European nations after the Napoleonic Wars. It aimed to prevent any single country from dominating others and maintain peace across Europe.

Count Camillo Cavour

: Count Camillo Cavour was a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification. He was the Prime Minister of Sardinia, and his diplomatic skills helped to set the stage for a united Italy.

Crimean War

: The Crimean War (1853-1856) was a military conflict fought between Russia and an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. It was primarily over religious rights in the Holy Land but also involved territorial disputes in Eastern Europe.

Danish War (1864)

: The Danish War, also known as the Second Schleswig War, was a conflict in which Prussia and Austria fought against Denmark to gain control of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.

Diplomatic Tensions

: Diplomatic tensions refer to strained relations between countries due to disagreements on international issues, often leading to conflicts or wars if not resolved peacefully.

Dual Monarchy

: The Dual Monarchy refers to the political arrangement that existed between Austria and Hungary from 1867 to 1918, where both nations were ruled by a single monarch but maintained separate parliaments and administrations.

First Balkan War (1912-1913)

: The First Balkan War was a conflict where the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria) fought against the Ottoman Empire to gain territories.

Franco-Prussian War of 1870

: The Franco-Prussian War was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. The war resulted in a decisive Prussian victory, leading to the unification of Germany.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

: Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian general, patriot, and one of the greatest guerrilla warriors of all time. He played a significant role in the unification of Italy.

Giuseppe Mazzini

: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian politician, journalist, and activist who played a crucial role in the unification of Italy. He is known for founding the nationalist group Young Italy.

Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles

: The Hall of Mirrors is a grand baroque-style gallery and one of the most famous rooms in the Palace of Versailles, France. It was used for lavish receptions and ceremonies, including the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.

Italian War of 1859

: The Italian War of 1859 was a conflict fought by France and Sardinia against Austria. It resulted in significant territorial gains for Sardinia, paving the way for Italian unification.

King Victor Emmanuel II

: King Victor Emmanuel II was the king of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia from 1849 to 1861. He became the first king of a united Italy since the 6th century, a title he held until his death in 1878.

North German Confederation (1866)

: The North German Confederation was a federation established by Otto von Bismarck that included all German states north of River Main excluding Austria. It laid groundwork for modern Germany's unification.

Otto von Bismarck

: Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian statesman who masterminded the unification of Germany in 1871 and served as its first chancellor until 1890.

Piedmont-Sardinia

: Piedmont-Sardinia refers to one of the pre-unification states on the Italian Peninsula. It played an instrumental role in leading efforts towards creating a unified Italy due to its relative strength among other Italian states.

Realpolitik

: Realpolitik refers to politics or diplomacy based primarily on power and practical considerations, rather than ideological or moral ones.

Red Shirts

: The Red Shirts were volunteers who followed Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Risorgimento (Italian Unification). They were named after their distinctive red shirts which they wore as uniforms.

Second Balkan War (1913)

: The Second Balkan War was a conflict which broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the spoils of the First Balkan War, attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece, in 1913.

Spanish Bourbons

: The Spanish Bourbons were a royal family that ruled Spain from the 18th century to the present day, with some interruptions. They are known for their efforts in modernizing Spain and strengthening its international standing.

The Balkans

: The Balkans is a geographical region in Southeast Europe with various cultural and historical identities. It includes countries like Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece etc.

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

: The Crimean War was a conflict fought between Russia against an alliance formed by Turkey, Britain, France and Sardinia. It was primarily over religious control in Palestine which was then under Ottoman rule.

Tsar Nicholas I

: Tsar Nicholas I ruled Russia from 1825 until his death in 1855. He was known for his repressive policies and resistance against reform.

Unification of Germany

: The unification of Germany refers to the process by which numerous independent German states were brought together under the leadership of Prussia into a single nation-state known as the German Empire in 1871.

Unification of Italy

: The Unification of Italy refers to political and social movements that consolidated different states on Italian peninsula into a single state known as Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

Young Italy

: Young Italy was a political movement founded in 1831 by Giuseppe Mazzini. The goal of this movement was to create a united Italian republic through promoting a general insurrection in the Italian reactionary states and in the lands occupied by the Austrian Empire.

Zollverein

: The Zollverein was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories during the 19th century.


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AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.