7 min read•Last Updated on June 18, 2024
Minna Chow
Sharii Liang
Minna Chow
Sharii Liang
In this guide, we'll give a brief overview of some of the major religious conflicts of the age.
The key idea is that matters of religion influenced and were influenced by political factors. These religious conflicts often had political interests; political conflicts often mixed religion into them.
An example of this is how the religious changes sweeping Europe interacted with the existing political tension between the noblitiy and the monarchy. For years, nobility and monarchies did their best to limit the other’s power. With the rise of religious reforms, many nobles switched to Protestant sects while many monarchies remained devout Catholics. (This was the case in France.) In some countries (read: England) the monarch became Protestant (Anglican) while a large group of nobles remained Catholic.
Let's go by region as we discuss the Wars of Religion.
🎥 Watch: AP European History - Martin Luther and Reformation
The two major religious conflicts you need to know in the area that's roughly modern-day Germany are the German Peasants' War and the Schmalkaldic Wars. The most important thing about the Schmalkaldic Wars is the Peace of Augsburg that concluded them.
In Germany, Martin Luther’s ideas influenced German peasants to revolt (German Peasants’ War). Hundreds of thousands of peasants rose up against their land owners to fight for social equality and religious/economic freedom. The violence of these peasants horrified Luther, and he actually supported the aristocrats in putting down the revolt through any means necessary.
In the Holy Roman Empire (which was neither Holy, nor Roman), the Habsburgs rulers were faced with two problems: an expanding Ottoman Empire on the East and the rise of Protestantism in the West. In the West, Charles V would confront Martin Luther about his 95 Theses at the Diet of Worms, but it was much too late. Luther’s ideas had spread, and there was nothing Charles V could do about it.
The Habsburg rulers were the largest, most influential family in Europe. You could find them in practically every royal family. They were the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire and devout Catholics. When the German states and the princes under them converted to Protestantism (forming a group known as the Schmalkaldic League), Charles V (current ruler of the HRE) fought them in the Schmalkaldic Wars before coming to a resolution known as the Peace of Augsburg (1555) . From then on, German princes could choose between Lutheranism and Catholicism only (no Calvinism!)
The Peace of AugsburgThe major conflict here is the French Wars of Religion.
In France, Catholics fought against the Huguenots (another term for French Calvinists). This tension was even prominent in the aristocracy and monarchy. Protestant nobles struggled with a Catholic monarchy, and this discourse rippled down to the lower levels of society before culminating into the St. Bartholomew Day’s Massacre (1572), a major religious massacre that exacerbated the conflict.
The French Wars of Religion would eventually result in the War of the Three Henrys. One of those three Henrys, Henry of Navarre, became King Henry IV. Originally a Protestant, he converted to Catholicism and drafted the Edict of Nantes, granting rights of religious liberty to the Huguenots
🎥 Watch: AP European History - French Wars of Religion
Flag of the Catholic LeagueThe Thirty Years' War was a major religious conflict that doesn't quite fit in any one region, so it's getting its own catagory.
In Bohemia (the equivalent of the present day Czech Republic), the election of a new king would cause a division between Catholics and Protestants. Afraid that the new Catholic king, Ferdinand II, would strip away Protestant rights, some Bohemian leaders elected Frederick V, a Protestant.
Although it was certain that Ferdinand II would end up on the throne, since he was personally chosen by the previous King, that didn’t stop Protestant opposition. In fact, the supporters of Frederick V were so peeved, they threw some of Ferdinand II’s Catholic representatives out of a 69 feet high window! (Miraculously, the representatives lived.) This event, called the Defenestration of Prague (defenestrate = a fancy word for throwing someone out a window), sparked Europe’s bloodiest religious war, the Thirty Years’ War 🎥.
In the Thirty Years’ War, Denmark, Sweden, and France all exploited the conflict in Bohemia for their own agendas. What started off as a religious war would expand into a political one as Denmark joined on the side of the Protestants to protect religious freedom in his, and other kingdoms, as well as expand his land. Sweden had the same reasons as Denmark for joining, but France, despite being Catholic, joined on the Protestant side due to a rivalry with the Habsburgs. (For more information about the specifics of the war, consult the table below.)
The Thirty Years' War ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. While the Peace of Augsburg allowed German princes to choose between Lutheranism and Catholicism, the Peace of Westphalia granted the option to choose to other princes, bishops, and local leaders. The peace destroyed any remaining medieval ideas of universal Christianity, and sped up the decline of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Thirty Years' War In Detail
Phase | Place & Time | Important Players | Beginning Event | Ending Event |
Bohemian | Bohemia, 1618-1625 | Ferdinand II, Johann Tserclaes of Tilly, Frederick V, Count Ernst von Mansfeld | The Defenestration of Prague | Battle of White Mountain (Catholic victory) |
Danish | Germany and Denmark, 1625-1629 | Ferdinand II, Albrecht von Wallenstein, Christian IV | Frederick V flees to Holland & Denmark supports Protestants | Peace of Lübeck (Catholic victory) |
Swedish | Germany, 1630-1635 | Gustavus Adolphus, Wallenstein, Cardinal Richelieu | Invasion of Germany by Sweden’s king | Death of Swedish King, Gustavus Adolphus, in battle |
French AKAFranco-Swedish | Germany, 1635-1648 | Cardinal Richelieu, HRE, Maximilian of Bavaria | France gets directly involved in the fighting | Peace of Westphalia, 1648 |
🎥 Watch: AP European History - Thirty Years' War
Certain countries sought to exploit religion for their own gains. They saw it as a reason (or justification) to achieve national unity or more power. Below, we'll detail some of the ways states used religious turmoil to their advantage.
Spain was the Catholic Church’s biggest supporter. Ruled by Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, it took this time of religious turmoil to get rid of all the Muslims and Jews in the nation. The Spanish Inquisition sought out any people who weren’t Catholic and gave them two options: convert or leave.
In England, King Henry VIII faced a dilemma that would forever change the country: how was he going to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, if the Pope wouldn’t let him? 💔 His solution was to leave the Catholic Church and create his own.
This divorce began the English Reformation, and King Henry became the Supreme Head of the Church of England during this time. After his death, the nation would go through another rapid change back to Catholicism for a short while with Mary I (Bloody Mary!) until the English Reformation returned and culminated with Elizabeth I.
Name | Cause of Death | Any Children? | Position |
King Henry VIII | Natural Causes | 3 legitimate: Edward VI, Mary I, & Elizabeth I | King of England |
Catherine of Aragon | Heart Cancer | Mary I | First Wife |
Anne Boleyn | Beheaded | Elizabeth I | Second Wife |
Jane Seymour | Childbirth | Edward VI | Third Wife |
Anne of Cleves | Cancer | None | Fourth Wife |
Catherine Howard | Beheaded | None | Fifth Wife |
Catherine Parr | Childbirth | None that matter | Sixth Wife |
Edward VI | Tuberculosis | None | King of England |
Lady Jane Grey | Executed | None that matter | Queen of England |
Mary I | Disease | None | Queen of England |
Elizabeth I | Sepsis | None | Queen of England |
As the continent grew bloodier and bloodier, it was clear to everyone that a unified Catholic Europe was no longer possible. Various legal agreements created after conflicts allowed for religious plurality.
Even nations that weren’t involved in conflicts, like Poland and the Netherlands, had religious pluralism. Catholicism was still the main religion in these two states, with Phillip II of Spain persecuting non-Catholics in the Netherlands, but Calvinism and various Protestant sects were allowed.
The 95 Theses were a list of propositions for debate written by Martin Luther in 1517 that criticized the practices of the Catholic Church, particularly the sale of indulgences. This document is often seen as the catalyst for the Protestant Reformation, as it sparked widespread debate and led to significant religious and political changes across Europe.
Term 1 of 18
The 95 Theses were a list of propositions for debate written by Martin Luther in 1517 that criticized the practices of the Catholic Church, particularly the sale of indulgences. This document is often seen as the catalyst for the Protestant Reformation, as it sparked widespread debate and led to significant religious and political changes across Europe.
Term 1 of 18
The 95 Theses were a list of propositions for debate written by Martin Luther in 1517 that criticized the practices of the Catholic Church, particularly the sale of indulgences. This document is often seen as the catalyst for the Protestant Reformation, as it sparked widespread debate and led to significant religious and political changes across Europe.
Term 1 of 18
The German Peasants' War was a widespread revolt in the early 16th century, occurring between 1524 and 1525, where peasants in the Holy Roman Empire sought to improve their living conditions and gain rights against oppressive landlords. This uprising was significant as it reflected the social tensions and economic grievances that arose during the Reformation, leading to a violent conflict between the peasantry and the ruling authorities.
Lutheranism: A major branch of Protestant Christianity founded on the teachings of Martin Luther, emphasizing justification by faith alone and the authority of Scripture.
Peasant Revolt: An uprising by rural populations against feudal lords or authorities, often driven by demands for social or economic reform.
Schmalkaldic League: An alliance formed by Protestant princes within the Holy Roman Empire during the Reformation to defend their rights and interests against Catholic forces.
The Schmalkaldic Wars were a series of conflicts between Protestant princes in the Holy Roman Empire and the Catholic emperor Charles V, primarily occurring from 1546 to 1555. These wars were significant as they represented a critical struggle during the Protestant Reformation, highlighting the tensions between Protestant reformers and traditional Catholic authority.
Schmalkaldic League: An alliance of Protestant princes formed in 1531 to defend their rights against the encroachments of the Holy Roman Emperor and to promote the Reformation.
Peace of Augsburg: A treaty signed in 1555 that officially ended the Schmalkaldic Wars and allowed each prince in the Holy Roman Empire to choose between Lutheranism and Catholicism for their territory.
Martin Luther: A German theologian whose actions sparked the Protestant Reformation, advocating for reforms in the Catholic Church and emphasizing justification by faith alone.
The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty signed in 1555 that ended the religious civil war between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire. This agreement allowed each prince to determine whether their territory would be Catholic or Lutheran, thereby establishing a precedent for religious self-determination in the region and reflecting the broader religious conflicts of the time.
Lutheranism: A major branch of Protestant Christianity that identifies with the teachings of Martin Luther, emphasizing justification by faith and the authority of Scripture.
Holy Roman Empire: A multi-ethnic complex of territories in Central Europe that existed from the early Middle Ages until its dissolution in 1806, which was significantly impacted by the Reformation.
Religious Wars: Conflicts primarily driven by religious differences, particularly during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, including wars between Catholics and various Protestant sects.
Martin Luther was a German theologian and religious reformer whose actions sparked the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. He challenged the Catholic Church's practices, especially the sale of indulgences, and emphasized salvation through faith alone, reshaping the religious landscape of Europe.
95 Theses: A list of propositions for debate written by Martin Luther in 1517, criticizing the Catholic Church's practices, particularly the selling of indulgences.
Protestantism: A branch of Christianity that emerged from the Reformation, characterized by its rejection of papal authority and emphasis on scripture over tradition.
Diet of Worms: An imperial assembly held in 1521 where Martin Luther was declared an outlaw and heretic for refusing to recant his writings against the Catholic Church.
The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that existed from the early Middle Ages until 1806, characterized by a decentralized political structure and the symbolic authority of the emperor. This empire played a critical role in European politics, influencing the rise of new monarchies, the wars of religion, state building efforts, and the balance of power in Europe.
Emperor: The monarch who ruled over the Holy Roman Empire, whose authority was often challenged by regional princes and local rulers.
Electors: A group of princes in the Holy Roman Empire responsible for electing the emperor, reflecting the empire's decentralized nature.
Peace of Westphalia: The series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648, which also significantly altered the political landscape of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Habsburgs were a prominent royal family that rose to power in Europe during the late Middle Ages and continued to influence European politics until the early 20th century. They ruled over a vast empire, which included territories in modern-day Austria, Spain, the Netherlands, and parts of Italy, and played a central role in the religious conflicts and political struggles during the Wars of Religion.
Holy Roman Empire: A multi-ethnic complex of territories in Central Europe that was ruled by the Habsburg family for centuries, serving as a major political entity during the medieval and early modern periods.
Thirty Years' War: A devastating conflict from 1618 to 1648 that involved numerous European powers and was rooted in both religious and political disputes, heavily impacting Habsburg territories.
Spanish Inquisition: A judicial institution established in Spain that aimed to maintain Catholic orthodoxy, reflecting the Habsburgs' commitment to Catholicism amid growing Protestant movements.
The Ottoman Empire was a powerful Islamic state that lasted from the late 13th century until the early 20th century, covering parts of Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. It was known for its vast territorial reach and cultural diversity, significantly influencing European politics and society during its height.
Sultan: The supreme ruler of the Ottoman Empire, holding both political and religious authority.
Treaty of Sèvres: A 1920 treaty that formally dismantled the Ottoman Empire after World War I, redistributing its territories among the Allied powers.
Young Turks: A political reform movement in the early 20th century that sought to modernize and reform the Ottoman Empire, ultimately leading to significant changes in governance.
Charles V was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1519 to 1556 and King of Spain from 1516, representing one of the most significant political figures in European history during the 16th century. He ruled over an extensive empire that included vast territories in Europe and the Americas, which made him a central figure during critical conflicts such as the Protestant Reformation and the Wars of Religion.
Holy Roman Empire: A multi-ethnic complex of territories in Central Europe that existed from the medieval period until its dissolution in 1806, with the emperor as its nominal leader.
Protestant Reformation: A religious movement in the 16th century that led to the establishment of Protestant churches and challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, significantly impacting European politics and society.
Habsburg Dynasty: A powerful royal family that played a crucial role in European politics, ruling over various territories, including Spain, Austria, and parts of Italy and the Netherlands.
The 95 Theses were a list of propositions for debate written by Martin Luther in 1517 that criticized the practices of the Catholic Church, particularly the sale of indulgences. This document is often seen as the catalyst for the Protestant Reformation, as it sparked widespread debate and led to significant religious and political changes across Europe.
Indulgences: Payments made to the Catholic Church that were believed to reduce punishment for sins, which Luther argued undermined true repentance.
Protestant Reformation: A religious movement in the 16th century that led to the creation of Protestant churches and significant reforms within Christianity.
Diet of Worms: A council held in 1521 where Martin Luther was summoned to recant his teachings, leading to his excommunication from the Catholic Church.
The Diet of Worms was an imperial council held in 1521, convened by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to address the growing concerns regarding Martin Luther's teachings and the Protestant Reformation. This assembly marked a pivotal moment in religious and political history, as it culminated in Luther's refusal to recant his 95 Theses and other writings, thereby solidifying the divide between the Catholic Church and emerging Protestant beliefs.
Martin Luther: A German monk and theologian whose criticisms of the Catholic Church sparked the Protestant Reformation, particularly through his 95 Theses.
Protestant Reformation: A religious movement in the 16th century that sought to reform the Catholic Church and resulted in the establishment of various Protestant denominations.
Excommunication: The act of officially excluding someone from participation in the sacraments and services of the Christian Church, often as a form of punishment for heresy.
The Schmalkaldic League was a defensive alliance formed in 1531 by Protestant territories within the Holy Roman Empire to protect their interests against the Catholic Emperor Charles V. This league played a crucial role during the Wars of Religion, representing the organized resistance of Protestant states against Catholic dominance and imperial authority.
Holy Roman Empire: A multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that existed from the early Middle Ages until 1806, characterized by a decentralized political structure and a struggle between Protestant and Catholic factions.
Lutheranism: A major branch of Protestant Christianity founded on the teachings of Martin Luther, which emphasized justification by faith alone and the authority of scripture.
Peace of Augsburg: A treaty signed in 1555 that allowed for the coexistence of Catholicism and Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire, recognizing the principle of 'cuius regio, eius religio' (whose realm, his religion).
The French Wars of Religion were a series of conflicts from 1562 to 1598 primarily between French Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants), marked by political struggles for power and religious dominance. These wars are crucial in understanding the broader context of religious conflicts in Europe during the Reformation and their impact on state power, society, and politics.
Huguenots: French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin and were involved in the religious conflicts against the Catholic majority during the French Wars of Religion.
Edict of Nantes: A decree issued by Henry IV in 1598 that granted substantial rights to Huguenots and effectively ended the French Wars of Religion by promoting civil unity.
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre: A targeted killing of Huguenots on August 24, 1572, which escalated the violence of the French Wars of Religion and marked a significant turning point in the conflict.
Henry of Navarre, also known as Henry IV of France, was a pivotal figure during the Wars of Religion in France, reigning from 1589 until his assassination in 1610. He was a Protestant leader who became king after the War of the Three Henrys and ultimately converted to Catholicism to secure his rule and end the religious conflicts that plagued France. His ascension marked a significant turning point, as he worked to promote tolerance and stabilize the nation.
Edict of Nantes: A decree issued in 1598 by Henry IV that granted religious freedom to Huguenots and aimed to bring an end to the French Wars of Religion.
War of the Three Henrys: A civil war in France from 1587 to 1589 involving three main factions led by Henry III, Henry of Guise, and Henry of Navarre.
Huguenots: French Protestants who followed the Reformed tradition, often facing persecution during the Wars of Religion.
King Henry IV was the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon, reigning from 1589 until his assassination in 1610. His reign marked a significant turning point in France, as he worked to unify a nation divided by religious conflicts and established the foundations for a stronger centralized monarchy.
Edict of Nantes: A decree issued by Henry IV in 1598 that granted significant rights to the Huguenots, providing them with freedom of worship and equal civil rights, which helped to reduce tensions between Catholics and Protestants in France.
Wars of Religion: A series of conflicts in France between Catholics and Huguenots during the late 16th century, which contributed to the rise of Henry IV and his efforts to establish religious tolerance and political stability.
Bourbon Dynasty: The royal house that King Henry IV established, which continued to rule France for over a century and played a pivotal role in shaping French history and politics.
The Edict of Nantes was a decree issued in 1598 by King Henry IV of France, granting religious tolerance to Huguenots (French Protestants) and ending the religious wars between Catholics and Protestants in France. This edict was significant in establishing a framework for coexistence between the two groups, reflecting the broader context of political and religious conflicts in Europe during this period.
Huguenots: French Protestants influenced by John Calvin, who faced persecution in predominantly Catholic France during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Catholic League: A coalition formed by Catholic nobles and leaders in France to combat the influence of Protestantism, particularly during the French Wars of Religion.
French Wars of Religion: A series of conflicts from 1562 to 1598 between Catholics and Protestants in France, marked by violence and power struggles that led to significant social and political changes.
Bohemia was a historical region in central Europe, primarily located in what is now the Czech Republic. During the Wars of Religion, it became a focal point of conflict between Catholic and Protestant factions, most notably during the Thirty Years' War, which had profound implications for European politics and religion.
Hussite Wars: A series of conflicts in the early 15th century in Bohemia, sparked by religious reform movements led by the Hussites, who sought to challenge Catholic authority.
Thirty Years' War: A devastating conflict from 1618 to 1648 that involved many European powers, originating from religious disputes in Bohemia and leading to significant territorial and political changes.
Defenestration of Prague: An event in 1618 where Protestant nobles threw two Catholic officials out of a window, marking the beginning of the Thirty Years' War and symbolizing the deep religious divisions in Bohemia.
Ferdinand II was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1619 until his death in 1637, known for his role in the Thirty Years' War and as a staunch supporter of Catholicism during a period marked by intense religious conflict. His reign saw the escalation of hostilities between Protestant and Catholic states in Europe, contributing to a broader struggle for power and influence that defined the Wars of Religion.
Thirty Years' War: A series of conflicts in Europe from 1618 to 1648 primarily fought over religious and territorial disputes, resulting in significant political and social change.
Peace of Westphalia: The series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648, marking a turning point in European political and religious history.
Habsburg Dynasty: A prominent royal family that ruled large parts of Europe, including the Holy Roman Empire, and was closely associated with Ferdinand II's reign and policies.
The Thirty Years' War was a devastating conflict in Europe from 1618 to 1648, primarily fought within the Holy Roman Empire, involving numerous European powers. It began as a struggle between Catholic and Protestant states but evolved into a broader political struggle, impacting the continent's balance of power, religion, and society.
Peace of Westphalia: A series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648, establishing a new political order in Europe based on state sovereignty and non-interference in domestic affairs.
Habsburg Dynasty: A prominent European royal family that played a crucial role during the Thirty Years' War, ruling over the Holy Roman Empire and many other territories.
Bohemian Revolt: An uprising that marked the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, where Protestant nobles in Bohemia revolted against Habsburg authority and Catholic rule.