9.15 Continuity and Change in the 20th and 21st Centuries

World Wars I and II redefined European identity by breaking old certainties and forcing new political, social, and moral choices. Total war and mass casualties discredited 19th-century liberal optimism, accelerated state power (welfare states, planned economies), and shifted borders and populations through ethnic cleansing and forced migration. After WWII Europe split into liberal democratic West and communist East (Iron Curtain, Berlin Wall), shaping competing identities during the Cold War (NATO vs. Warsaw Pact). At the same time, leaders sought cooperation to prevent future war—Marshall Plan aid, the European Coal and Steel Community, and eventually the EU—so “being European” grew to include transnational economic and political ties. Decolonization, new migration, and voices from women and minorities further diversified what it meant to belong. For AP essays, emphasize continuity/change and causation: show how wartime trauma produced both polarization and integration (see Topic 9.15 study guide for a focused review: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn). For practice, use Fiveable’s unit resources and 1000+ practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Fascism, communism, and democracy are different answers Europeans gave to 20th-century crises (KC-4.2). - Fascism: an authoritarian, often totalitarian, ideology (Italy, Germany, Spain) that prizes strong centralized state, intense nationalism, suppression of dissent, and control of society while allowing private property under state direction. It rejects liberal rights and parliamentary pluralism. - Communism (Soviet model): a single-party, state-led system claiming to abolish class distinctions. The state controls the economy (planned economy), property is nationalized, political opposition is banned, and civil liberties are limited in the name of equality and modernization. - Democracy (liberal democracy): competitive multiparty elections, rule of law, protection of civil liberties, market or mixed economies, and pluralism. After WWII it contrasted with Soviet communism in the Cold War (KC-4.1.IV). For AP prep, focus on how these ideologies shaped state-society relations and postwar Europe (Topic 9.15 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn). For more review and 1,000+ practice questions, see the unit page (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9) and practice set (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Because WWII left Europe ruined and scared, wartime allies (US and USSR) carved out spheres of influence to secure their interests. The USSR kept Eastern Europe as a buffer against future invasions and imposed communist governments; the West responded with economic and military integration (Marshall Plan, NATO, European Coal and Steel Community), hardening two blocs. Ideological rivalry (communism vs. liberal democracy), the 1945 Yalta/Potsdam agreements, and crises like Berlin (airlift, then the Berlin Wall) turned a temporary division into a lasting “Iron Curtain.” Nuclear deterrence and bipolar competition made direct reconciliation risky, so political, economic, and military institutions kept the split until Soviet reform under Gorbachev, Eastern protest movements (Solidarity, Prague Spring’s legacy), and EU expansion reversed it by 1989–91. This fits CED KC-4.1 (Cold War polarization) and KC-4.2 (ideological conflict). For a quick review, see the Topic 9.15 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn)—and practice AP-style questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

After WWII, nationalism—the idea that a people sharing language, religion, or history should have their own state—clashed with the reality of multiethnic states created earlier. Wartime population movements, collapsed empires, and decolonization left mixed populations inside new or restored borders. Leaders and groups used nationalist claims to demand territory or majoritarian rule, which turned political disputes into ethnic conflict (KC-4.1.V). Examples: tensions in Yugoslavia escalated into ethnic cleansing in the 1990s as republics asserted nationalist independence; population transfers and communal violence also erupted in Central and Eastern Europe. On the AP exam you might be asked to explain causation or continuity/change (LEQ/SAQ/DBQ), so link nationalism to weakened state institutions, competing self-determination claims, and Cold War polarization. For a focused review, see the Topic 9.15 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Europe’s main 20th-century challenges: two world wars that produced total war, mass casualties, and political instability; the ideological clash between democracy, communism, and fascism that reshaped states and societies; the Cold War’s East–West polarization (Iron Curtain, NATO, Warsaw Pact, Berlin Wall); economic collapse and recovery efforts (Marshall Plan, welfare states); decolonization and large postwar migration; ethnic conflict and separatism (Yugoslav wars, ethnic cleansing); and cultural/intellectual shifts that questioned authority and absolute truth. These forces changed everyday life (demographics, gender roles, welfare), drove European integration (ECSC → EU, Maastricht, Schengen), and redefined “European” identity around human rights, transnational cooperation, and pluralism. For AP exam work, connect specific examples to KC-4.1–4.4 and use documents or evidence to explain continuity/change or causation in free-response prompts. Review Topic 9.15 for summaries (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn), explore Unit 9 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9), and practice with 1000+ questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Total war transformed everyday European life, politics, and culture. Mass mobilization and civilian targeting broke down the soldier/civilian divide, causing huge casualties, demographic loss, and refugee flows that reshaped families and migration patterns. Governments expanded power—rationing, conscription, propaganda, and later welfare-state programs—to manage economies and social needs (think postwar welfare state). Women’s wartime roles accelerated demands for rights and changed gender norms. Culturally, trauma and disillusionment fed modernist, existential, and anti-authoritarian movements that questioned objective truth and religion (CED KC-4.2, KC-4.3). Politically, total war weakened empires and sped decolonization, fueled ethnic conflict and postwar atrocities, and pushed leaders toward cooperation (Marshall Plan, European integration) to prevent recurrence (KC-4.1, KC-4.4). For AP prep, connect these changes to DBQ/LEQ skills—use specific evidence and link causes to short/long-term effects. See the Topic 9.15 study guide for targeted examples (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

“European identity” means how people in Europe see themselves—as citizens of their nation, of Europe, or part of ethnic/religious groups—and that changed a lot in the 20th–21st centuries. After two world wars and the Cold War’s East/West split (Iron Curtain, Berlin Wall), identity was often tied to political systems (democracy vs. communism). Postwar recovery, the Marshall Plan, and institutions like the European Coal and Steel Community leading to the EU (Maastricht Treaty, Schengen) pushed a transnational European identity based on economic ties, shared rights, and cooperation. At the same time decolonization, mass migration, and conflicts (Yugoslav Wars, ethnic cleansing) challenged who counts as “European.” New voices—women, immigrant communities, and regional/nationalist movements—reshaped belonging. For the AP exam, focus on “how challenges influenced what it means to be European” (CED Learning Objective P): show continuity (nationalism, cultural memory) and change (integration, plural identities). For a targeted review, see the Topic 9.15 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Short answer: there wasn’t one single cause—several long- and short-term forces combined to produce nationalist movements and ethnic cleansing in 20th–21st century Europe. Key causes: the collapse and redrawing of empires after WWI and WWII (population transfers and contested borders); wartime traumas and demographic shifts; Cold War divisions that froze grievances into separate states; authoritarian Communist rule that suppressed but didn’t erase ethnic identities; and the violent political vacuum after communism’s fall (1990s) when weak states, economic collapse, and opportunistic leaders stoked ethnic nationalism (see the Yugoslav Wars and ethnic cleansing). International limits (slow intervention, competing Cold War interests) also mattered. For AP prep, use Unit 9 themes (KC-4.1–4.4) to connect causes and effects in short-answer/LEQ/DBQ responses. Review Topic 9.15 study guide for focused examples (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn) and practice AP-style questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Start with a clear thesis that directly answers the prompt about continuity and change in modern Europe (place it in your intro or conclusion). Quickly contextualize using Unit 9 ideas—Cold War division, postwar integration (Marshall Plan, EU), decolonization, and late-20th social/political shifts. For documents: use at least four to support your line of reasoning and explicitly describe their content (not just quote). Sourcing: for two documents explain POV/purpose/audience or historical situation and why that matters to your argument. Bring in at least one specific piece of outside evidence (e.g., Berlin Wall/its fall, Maastricht Treaty/EU, Yugoslav Wars/ethnic cleansing, welfare state expansion, Gorbachev). Structure paragraphs by theme (political, economic, social, cultural) to show continuity and change across decades. End by showing complexity—multiple causes/effects or continuity alongside change. For targeted Topic 9.15 content and examples, see the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Short answer: both. The Cold War initially hurt unity by hardening Europe into two blocs—Iron Curtain, NATO vs. Warsaw Pact—and freezing political, economic, and social ties across the continent. That polarization fits KC-4.1 (a polarized state order after WWII). But it also pushed Western Europe toward deeper cooperation: the Marshall Plan, the European Coal and Steel Community, and later steps toward the EU (Maastricht, Schengen, enlargement) were driven by a desire for economic recovery and security under U.S. protection. After 1989, Cold War collapse made true pan-European integration possible, though it also exposed unresolved nationalist tensions (e.g., Yugoslav wars, ethnic cleansing) and new challenges like migration. For AP essays, frame this as a continuity/change argument: Cold War division (continuity of rivalry) versus the change of accelerating transnational union. For more review, see the Topic 9.15 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn) and Unit 9 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9). Practice applying causation/CCOT with Fiveable practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Economic collapse creates conditions that make extreme ideologies appealing because people face uncertainty, lost jobs, and eroded trust in traditional institutions. When economies fail, voters often look for clear, decisive solutions—this opens space for movements promising national revival (fascism, radical nationalism) or radical redistribution (communism). The CED ties this to KC-4.2: stresses of economic collapse and total war produced internal conflicts and competing visions of state vs. individual. Historical examples: post-WWI Germany’s hyperinflation and the Great Depression helped legitimize extremist parties; interwar economic crisis also boosted communist movements. For AP essays/LEQs and SAQs, frame this as causation (economic collapse → political instability → ideological radicalization) and use continuity/change to show how responses shifted across the 20th century (e.g., welfare state after WWII). For more review, see the Topic 9.15 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn), the unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

New 20th–21st-century intellectual movements questioned traditional European values by undermining faith in reason, religion, and fixed truths. After two world wars, existentialism (Sartre, Camus) argued life has no inherent meaning, challenging religious and moral certainties. Psychoanalysis (Freud) questioned rational self-control and traditional family roles. Modernist and postmodernist art/literature rejected grand narratives of progress and national destiny. Scientific advances (relativity, quantum mechanics) weakened the idea of absolute, objective knowledge. Political ideologies and debates over human rights also shifted views on authority, nationalism, and the state (ties to Cold War polarities in KC-4.1 and KC-4.3). These changes matter for AP prompts asking you to explain how 20th-century challenges reshaped “what it means to be European”—useful for LEQs/DBQs where you must contextualize and cite intellectual shifts. For a focused review, see the Topic 9.15 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn) and more unit practice at (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9). For extra practice, try the 1,000+ questions here (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Traditional social patterns broke down in 20th-century Europe because of massive disruptions: two world wars, economic collapse, and rapid demographic change. Total war killed millions, shifted gender roles (more women in industry and politics), and weakened deference to elites. Economic growth, urbanization, and welfare states altered class structure and family life; rising consumer culture and youth subcultures weakened traditional authority. Decolonization and large postwar migrations changed ethnic composition and national identities, fueling both integration efforts (EU, Schengen) and ethnic conflict (Yugoslav wars). Intellectual shifts—secularization and pluralism—undermined Church authority and fixed moral norms. These forces gave new voices political influence (women, minorities, workers), creating continuity-and-change tensions the AP asks you to explain (Unit 9, LO P; KC-4.4). For a focused review, see the Topic 9.15 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to prep for the exam.

Long-term demographic changes reshaped what it means to be European by shifting population size, age, and composition. Low birthrates and aging populations put pressure on welfare states and labor markets, encouraging migration and EU labor mobility (Schengen, EU enlargement). Postwar migration from former colonies and recent refugee flows diversified societies, producing stronger multicultural identities for many while also fueling nationalist and anti-immigrant movements and debates over citizenship, belonging, and sovereignty (Yugoslav Wars, ethnic cleansing show earlier tensions). These shifts pushed Europe toward transnational responses (European Coal and Steel Community → EU, Maastricht Treaty) but also renewed questions about national identity and integration. For AP essays, use continuity/change, causation, and contextualization to link demographic trends to policy and cultural responses. For more on Topic 9.15 see the study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn). Practice with 1,000+ problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).

Competing ideas about freedom and justice—liberal democracy, communism, fascism, and later human-rights liberalism and ethno-nationalism—reshaped European politics by changing who held power and what states promised citizens. After WWII those conflicts produced a bipolar Cold War order (NATO vs. Warsaw Pact), state-led welfare systems in the West, and Soviet control in the East until reform under Gorbachev. Debates over justice fueled decolonization, civil-rights expansion, and new transnational institutions (ECSC → EU, Maastricht Treaty) that tied sovereignty to rights and economic integration. At the same time, competing claims to self-determination led to ethnic conflict (Yugoslav Wars, ethnic cleansing) and new legal frameworks for human rights. For the AP exam, practice explaining causation and continuity/change across these examples in DBQs and LEQs. For a concise Topic 9.15 review, see the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/continuity-change-20th-21st-centuries/study-guide/7jJ17O0bfQD5TAWIYtzn) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).