The 20th century marked a dramatic transformation in global politics, thought, and daily life. After the devastation of two world wars, Europe was divided ideologically and physically by the Cold War, sparking an era of intense rivalry, new cultural movements, and reimagined social values. This period also saw the emergence of new voices in political, intellectual, and artistic spheres, reflecting widespread anxieties and aspirations shaped by war, ideology, and modernity.
The End of World War II and the Birth of the Cold War
World War II ended with most of Europe in ruins—its cities destroyed, economies shattered, and populations traumatized. Amid this devastation, two nations emerged as global superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union. Their alliance during the war gave way to rivalry as they promoted opposing ideologies:
- The United States championed liberal democracy and capitalism.
- The Soviet Union promoted communism and centralized state control.
This ideological clash initiated the Cold War—a prolonged period of geopolitical tension from 1947 to 1991. Although it did not result in direct conflict between the superpowers, the Cold War was marked by:
- Proxy wars in Asia, Africa, and Latin America
- Nuclear arms races and the threat of mutually assured destruction
- Political and economic alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact
⭐ Cold War Legacy: The Cold War shaped much of postwar European and global politics. Many modern tensions and nuclear policies trace their origins to this era.
Competing Ideologies and Global Polarization
The devastation of total war and economic collapse led many Europeans to question traditional political systems and the relationship between the individual and the state.
Three dominant ideologies clashed across the century:
| Ideology | Key Beliefs | Notable Regimes |
|---|---|---|
| Fascism | Authoritarianism, ultranationalism, suppression of dissent | Mussolini’s Italy, Nazi Germany |
| Communism | Collective ownership, abolition of class, state-planned economy | Soviet Union, Eastern Bloc |
| Liberal Democracy | Individual rights, market economy, representative government | United States, Western Europe |
This ideological battle played out in both policy and culture, shaping domestic reforms and foreign relations in every European state.
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anxiety | A pervasive sense of unease and psychological distress that characterized much of 20th-century thought and culture, intensified by the experience of war. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| communist | A political and economic ideology based on collective ownership and the absence of social classes, representing one of the major ideological forces in 20th-century Europe. |
| Democracy | A system of government based on popular sovereignty and representation, representing one of the major ideological forces competing in 20th-century Europe. |
| demographic changes | Shifts in population size, structure, and distribution over time, including changes in birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns. |
| disruptions of traditional social patterns | Breakdown of established social structures and hierarchies caused by war and modernization. |
| Economic collapse | A severe breakdown of economic systems and structures, particularly referring to the Great Depression and post-war economic crises. |
| Economic growth | Expansion of productive capacity and material wealth in European economies during the 20th century. |
| everyday life | The lived experiences and daily realities of ordinary people, altered by demographic, economic, and social changes in 20th-century Europe. |
| Fascism | An authoritarian political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, rejection of democracy, centralized autocratic government, and often the glorification of war and a charismatic leader. |
| freedom and justice | Competing concepts and definitions that shaped political ideologies and social movements in 20th-century Europe. |
| Intellectual and cultural movements | Organized developments in thought, art, and philosophy that questioned traditional assumptions about knowledge, reason, and morality during the 20th century. |
| liberal democratic | A political system based on democratic governance and individual freedoms, as opposed to authoritarian or communist systems. |
| objective knowledge | The philosophical concept that truth and facts exist independently of individual perspectives or beliefs. |
| polarized state order | An international system divided into opposing blocs or ideological camps, as occurred during the Cold War. |
| Political instability | A state of uncertainty and disorder in government and political systems, characterized by weak institutions and frequent changes in power. |
| reason | Rational thought and logical analysis, which Enlightenment thinkers prioritized but Romantic thinkers questioned. |
| relationship between the individual and the state | The fundamental question of how much power the state should have over individuals and their freedoms, a central ideological conflict in 20th-century Europe. |
| total war | A form of warfare in which all of a nation's resources and population are mobilized for the war effort, blurring distinctions between military and civilian targets. |
| Transnational union | Political and economic organizations that unite multiple nations across borders, such as the European Union. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What exactly was the Cold War and when did it start?
The Cold War was a prolonged ideological, political, and strategic rivalry after World War II between the liberal democratic West (led by the United States and NATO) and the communist East (led by the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact). It wasn’t direct large-scale combat between the superpowers but competition through containment, proxy wars, nuclear arms race, economic programs (Marshall Plan), and events like the Berlin Airlift and the building of the Berlin Wall. Historians usually mark its start as the immediate postwar years—often 1947 (Truman Doctrine/containment) though tensions began in 1945—and it lasted nearly half a century, winding down with Gorbachev’s reforms and the revolutions of 1989–1991. For AP Euro contextualization practice (a key exam skill), review Topic 9.1 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK), the Unit 9 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9), and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did the US and Soviet Union become enemies after fighting together in WWII?
They were temporary partners against Nazi Germany, but deep disagreements made them enemies after 1945. Ideology mattered: the US backed liberal democracy and market capitalism, the USSR backed one-party communist rule (KC-4.2). WWII left a power vacuum in Europe; Stalin set up Soviet-dominated governments in Eastern Europe to secure borders, which the West saw as expansion. Mutual distrust grew at Yalta/Potsdam over Poland and reparations. The US responded with containment—Truman Doctrine (1947), the Marshall Plan (1948) to rebuild Western Europe, and NATO (1949). The Soviets countered with the Warsaw Pact (1955) and tightened control (Iron Curtain, Berlin Airlift showed direct confrontation). For AP exam context, explain these ideological + security causes when you contextualize Cold War origins (Unit 9.1). For a focused review, check the Topic 9.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the difference between communism and liberal democracy during the Cold War?
Communism (as practiced in the Soviet bloc) and liberal democracy represented two opposing Cold War models. Liberal democracies in Western Europe favored multi-party politics, competitive elections, civil liberties (free press, speech), private property, and market-based economies—backed by institutions like NATO and policies like the Marshall Plan and containment. Communist states had one-party rule (Communist Party), state ownership or central planning of the economy, limited political pluralism, restricted civil liberties, and policies like collectivization and De-Stalinization that shaped internal life. Those differences drove Cold War conflict (Iron Curtain, Truman Doctrine, Warsaw Pact) and shaped events like the Berlin Airlift, Hungarian Revolution, Prague Spring, and later détente. For the AP exam, be ready to explain these ideological contrasts and connect them to post-WWII policies and key events (Contextualization, causation). Review Topic 9.1 on Fiveable for a concise guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did World War II lead to the Cold War beginning?
World War II set the stage for the Cold War by creating a power vacuum, massive destruction, and competing visions for postwar Europe. The USSR occupied much of Eastern Europe and installed communist governments, while the US and Western allies promoted liberal democracy and market recovery (Marshall Plan). At Yalta and Potsdam, disagreements over Poland, reparations, and spheres of influence exposed distrust—Stalin’s security-first aims clashed with Western fears of Soviet expansion. Events like the Berlin Airlift and the “Iron Curtain” speech made that division visible. The US responded with containment (Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan) and NATO; the USSR countered with the Warsaw Pact—solidifying a polarized, alliance-based order that AP expects you to contextualize (Unit 9, KC-4.1.IV). For a concise topic review see the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK) and use Fiveable practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) for exam-style prep.
I'm confused about how Europe got divided after WWII - can someone explain?
At WWII’s end, Europe split into a Western bloc of liberal democracies and a Soviet-dominated Eastern bloc. The USSR occupied much of Central and Eastern Europe and set up communist governments, creating the “Iron Curtain.” The U.S. responded with containment: the 1947 Truman Doctrine (political/military support for states resisting communism) and the Marshall Plan (massive economic aid to rebuild Western Europe), which tied Western countries to U.S. security and markets. Military alliances followed—NATO (1949) in the West and the Warsaw Pact (1955) in the East—formalizing the divide. Flashpoints like the Berlin Airlift (1948–49) and later the Berlin Wall (1961) highlighted tensions. Know these causes and policies for AP contextualization and causation questions in Unit 9 (Topic 9.1). For a concise review, see the Topic 9.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the main causes of tension between East and West after 1945?
After 1945 tensions grew from a mix of ideology, security, and postwar power politics. The USSR promoted communist, state-controlled systems while the US and Western Allies defended liberal democracy and market economies—an ideological clash labeled the Iron Curtain (CED keywords). Wartime cooperation broke down as Stalin’s insistence on Soviet “buffer” states in Eastern Europe looked like expansion to the West; Western responses—the Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, and containment—aimed to stop Soviet influence. Military blocs (NATO vs. the Warsaw Pact), crises over Germany (Berlin Airlift, later the Berlin Wall), and the atomic/nuclear arms race made mistrust concrete. Leaders used ideology to justify security moves, so political competition became global and long-lasting (KC-4.1, KC-4.2). For AP practice, make sure you can contextualize these causes in essays/DBQs (skill: Contextualization)—see the Topic 9.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about the origins of the Cold War?
Start with a clear thesis that answers the prompt about the Cold War’s origins (e.g., whether it was ideological, geopolitical, or both) and place it in context—WWII’s devastation, the Yalta/Potsdam shifts, and Soviet-Western security concerns (KC-4.1). In the 15-minute reading period, read all docs and annotate for POV, purpose, audience, and links to keywords (Iron Curtain, Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, containment, Stalin). Build 2–3 analytic paragraphs grouping documents by theme (ideology vs. security/economic interests) and use at least four documents to support your claim. Explain sourcing for two documents (how Stalin’s goals differ from Truman’s rhetoric, for example). Add one specific outside fact (e.g., Soviet control of Eastern Europe, 1947 Truman Doctrine) beyond the docs. End with a short synthesis or complexity point (showing multiple causes or change over time). For topic review use Fiveable’s study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What does "polarized state order" mean in the context of post-war Europe?
A "polarized state order" after WWII means Europe was split into two opposing blocs with very different political systems and loyalties. One bloc—Western Europe—was largely liberal democratic and tied to the United States by policies like the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan, and NATO. The other bloc—Eastern Europe—was controlled by communist parties aligned with the USSR and organized under the Warsaw Pact and Soviet security doctrines (e.g., the Brezhnev Doctrine). The continent was separated by the "Iron Curtain" (Berlin/Berlin Wall events are key examples), and states’ foreign and domestic policies were shaped by containment, alliance politics, and ideological rivalry rather than neutral regional cooperation. For the AP exam, this phrase is a core contextualization point for Topic 9.1 (you can use it to set up short-answer or DBQ context). Review this idea and related keywords in the Topic 9.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK) and drill practice questions here (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did economic collapse and total war create conflicts between democracy, communism, and fascism?
Total war and economic collapse shattered states, disrupted class structures, and made people desperate for stability—so competing ideologies offered very different solutions. Democracy promised pluralism and market recovery but looked weak after hyperinflation, unemployment, and political paralysis. Communism argued for state planning and social equality, appealing to workers and peasants hit hardest by war and depression. Fascism promised authoritarian order, national renewal, and state-driven economic mobilization that attracted veterans and middle classes terrified of disorder or communist revolution. Those material stresses turned ideological disagreements into intense conflicts over the role of the state, individual rights, and economic control—setting the stage for polarized politics and ultimately the Cold War division (see KC-4.1 and KC-4.2 in the CED). For AP prep, practice framing these causes as contextualization and causation on essays and the DBQ (use the Topic 9.1 study guide on Fiveable: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK and Unit 9 overview: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9). For more practice, try problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the consequences of Europe being split into communist East and democratic West?
Splitting Europe into a communist East and democratic West caused political, military, economic, and social consequences that shaped the Cold War. Politically, Europe was polarized along the “Iron Curtain,” producing rival alliances (NATO vs. the Warsaw Pact) and frequent crises (Berlin Airlift, Berlin Wall). Economically, the Marshall Plan rebuilt Western economies and promoted market democracy, while Eastern states used central planning and Comecon, producing different growth and living standards. Militarily, containment and the Truman Doctrine sparked arms buildups and proxy conflicts across Europe. Socially and culturally, populations experienced restricted freedoms in the East (state censorship, limited travel) and growing consumer culture and political pluralism in the West. These divisions influenced late-20th-century events—de-Stalinization, uprisings (Hungary 1956, Prague Spring 1968), Solidarity in Poland, and finally détente and collapse under Gorbachev. For AP exam writing, use this split for contextualization and to support DBQ/LEQ claims with specific examples (Iron Curtain, Marshall Plan, NATO, Berlin Wall). More detail: see the Topic 9.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did the anxiety from war experiences affect European culture and thinking?
War’s trauma after WWI and WWII created a deep cultural anxiety that reshaped European thought. Soldiers’ and civilians’ experiences of total war and the Holocaust led many intellectuals to question Enlightenment confidence in reason, progress, and moral certainty (CED KC-4.3). That anxiety produced existentialism (Sartre, Camus), modernist and postmodernist art and literature (broken forms, absurdism), and skeptical histories of truth and memory. Politically it pushed support for welfare states, human-rights frameworks, and transnational institutions as safeguards against renewed violence (KC-4.1, KC-4.4). Culturally you’ll see more memorialization, films and novels exploring trauma, and a plurality of intellectual frameworks by century’s end (KC-4.3.I.ii). On the AP exam this shows up in Contextualization and Cultural/Intellectual Development prompts—use these links for review (topic study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK; unit overview: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9). For more practice, try the 1,000+ problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I missed class - what does "transnational union" refer to in Cold War Europe?
A "transnational union" in Cold War Europe means countries creating institutions that go beyond one nation’s borders to manage economics, politics, or security together—most famously the European Economic Community (EEC), which began as economic integration (common market, tariffs, cooperation) and later evolved into the European Union. In CED terms this fits KC-4.1: after WWII and the Cold War’s polarization, Western European states pursued cooperation to prevent economic collapse, reduce conflict, and bind markets and policies across borders. For the AP exam, mention this in Contextualization (Unit 9) when explaining how postwar instability led to integration (Marshall Plan, NATO, then EEC). If you want a quick refresher on this topic, the Fiveable study guide on Topic 9.1 covers it (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK), and you can practice related questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Compare the ideological differences between the liberal democratic West and communist East
The liberal democratic West and the communist East disagreed on politics, economics, and individual rights. West: multiparty elections, private property, market economies, civil liberties, and alliances like NATO backed by the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan to contain Soviet influence. East: one-party (Communist) rule, state ownership/central planning, limited political freedoms, heavy state control of culture and religion, and security through the Warsaw Pact and the Brezhnev Doctrine. Ideologically, the West emphasized individual rights and representative government; the East emphasized class equality, state-led redistribution, and loyalty to the party. These differences shaped Cold War events (Iron Curtain, Berlin Airlift, Berlin Wall, détente) and movements like 1956 Hungary, 1968 Prague Spring, and Poland’s Solidarity. For AP exam tasks you’ll often need to contextualize (CED Skill 4.A) and compare these systems—use the Topic 9.1 study guide for review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What role did competing definitions of freedom and justice play in Cold War tensions?
Competing definitions of "freedom" and "justice" were central to Cold War tensions: the U.S. and Western allies framed freedom as political pluralism, free markets, and individual rights (Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, NATO, containment), while the USSR defined freedom as liberation from capitalist exploitation and justice as state-directed equality under communism (Warsaw Pact, Brezhnev Doctrine). Those incompatible ideals made cooperation hard—each side saw the other's policies as threats to its model and sphere (Iron Curtain, Berlin Airlift, Berlin Wall). Ideology shaped interventions (Hungarian Revolution, Prague Spring, Solidarity) and justified both support for friendly regimes and suppression of dissent. For AP exam answers, connect these ideological claims to concrete policies/events and use contextualization and causation in your thesis. For a quick refresher, check the Topic 9.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK) and practice with 1,000+ AP questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did new social and political voices emerge during this period of conflict?
During the Cold War, new social and political voices emerged as people reacted to total war, economic strains, and competing ideologies (CED KC-4.1–4.4). Dissident intellectuals and artists questioned official narratives (de-Stalinization debates, Prague Spring 1968). Workers and independent labor movements—most famously Solidarity in Poland—created organized civil-society pressure for political reform. Youth and student movements pushed cultural pluralism and anti-authoritarian ideas; women’s movements pressed for social rights and welfare-state changes across Western democracies. Nationalist and ethnic claims after WWII also produced new political actors demanding recognition and justice. Leaders’ reforms (Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization, Gorbachev’s glasnost/perestroika) opened space for these voices, which helped end Cold War divisions and reshape Europe (e.g., fall of the Berlin Wall). For the AP exam, use these examples when contextualizing (Unit 9 LO A) and as specific evidence in DBQs/LEQs. More review: Fiveable’s Topic 9.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-9/context-cold-war-contemporary-europe/study-guide/tMdX4w3SkXpVHCjat9SK) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).