AP European History
🇪🇺ap european history review
5.8 Romanticism
Verified for the 2025 AP European History exam•Last Updated on June 18, 2024
What Was Romanticism?
Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century as a reaction against the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. While the Enlightenment had emphasized rationalism, empiricism, and order, Romanticism stressed emotion, imagination, nature, spirituality, and the individual.
Romantic thinkers argued that human beings were not solely creatures of logic and reason, but also of passion, intuition, and moral feeling. This shift in perspective helped people process the emotional chaos of revolution and war—especially the violence of the French Revolution and the disruption caused by industrialization (people felt robotic, mundane, and “cold” with industrialization).
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Romanticism was not just an art movement, it was a cultural revolt against the Enlightenment’s cold rationalism, the growing alienation of urban life, and the mechanization of nature and society.
Romanticism’s Intellectual Roots
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
A major forerunner of Romanticism was Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose writings emphasized the importance of natural emotion, moral instinct, and the individual’s relationship with society.
In Emile (1762), Rousseau advocated for natural education—learning guided by emotion and personal development rather than rigid Enlightenment instruction. In The Social Contract, he introduced the idea of the general will, placing community values above individual selfishness.
🧠 Rousseau’s belief in the goodness of human nature and the corrupting influence of civilization helped inspire Romanticism’s focus on innocence, nature, and individual feeling.
Romanticism vs. Earlier Art Movements
| Art Movement | Time Period | Key Traits |
|---|---|---|
| Renaissance | 1300s–1500s | Order, balance, harmony, realism, humanism |
| Mannerism | 1520s–1600 | Artificiality, elongated figures, emotional tension |
| Baroque | 1600s | Drama, grandeur, religious intensity, light/dark contrast |
| Rococo | 1700s | Ornate, playful, pastel, aristocratic leisure |
| Neoclassicism | Late 1700s | Simplicity, symmetry, civic virtue, modeled on Greco-Roman ideals |
| Romanticism | Late 1700s–mid 1800s | Emotion, nature, individuality, nationalism, mystery, the sublime |
Romanticism broke from Neoclassicism, which had focused on reason and idealized antiquity. Instead of depicting noble restraint and civic virtue, Romantic artists embraced the raw intensity of emotion and celebrated national identity, nature’s power, and human imagination.
Romantic Art 🎨
Romantic painters used vibrant colors, dramatic lighting, and wild landscapes to evoke powerful emotional responses. Artists often depicted heroism, rebellion, and suffering, reflecting the revolutionary spirit of the age.
Key Themes:
- Nature as sublime and overwhelming 🌩️
- The individual in struggle or contemplation
- National myths, folklore, and historical memory
- Exotic settings, violence, and political passion
Famous Works:
- Eugène Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People (1830): A symbol of revolution and nationalism, featuring a female figure (Liberty) leading French citizens in revolt.
- Francisco Goya, The Third of May, 1808: A haunting portrayal of war atrocities during Napoleon’s occupation of Spain.
Imaginary View of the Grand Gallery of the Louvre in Ruins, Hubert Robert (1796) (Louvre)
Romantic Literature 📚
Romantic writers emphasized emotion, inner turmoil, dreams, and rebellion against societal norms. They often idealized rural life, children, the past, and the natural world, while opposing the soulless conformity of urban and industrial society.
Key Characteristics:
- Individual over society
- Emotion over reason
- Nature over civilization
- Common people as noble and heroic
- Fascination with the supernatural, the exotic, and the tragic
Major Authors:
- Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, The Sorrows of Young Werther: A tragic love story that sparked a “Werther Fever” across Europe. Werther became the prototype of the emotional, misunderstood Romantic hero.
- Mary Shelley, Frankenstein: A warning about unchecked scientific ambition, blending Gothic horror with Romantic themes of nature, emotion, and isolation.
- Jane Austen: Though more realistic and subtle, her works explore personal feeling and social identity, earning her a place within the Romantic literary tradition.
Romantic Religion and Spirituality ✝️
The rise of Romanticism coincided with religious revival movements, including Methodism, which emphasized personal faith, heartfelt piety, and emotional worship over dry dogma.
John Wesley and Methodism
- Reacted to the Enlightenment’s rigid rationalism and secularism.
- Focused on emotional conversion experiences, preaching to the masses, and helping the poor.
- Promoted a sense of moral community and spiritual nationalism, especially in Britain.
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Romantic spirituality often valued mysticism, nature’s sacredness, and intuitive religious experience, as opposed to formal institutions or theology.
Romanticism and Nationalism 🌍
Romanticism played a crucial role in spreading nationalism across 19th-century Europe.
Romantic thinkers and artists celebrated the unique spirit of each nation—its language, folklore, customs, and history. They believed that a nation’s identity should be rooted in the shared emotional and cultural heritage of its people.
Key Examples:
- Germany: Johann Gottlieb Fichte and the Brothers Grimm promoted a German national identity rooted in language and folklore.
- Italy: Romantic operas and literature fed the growing desire for national unification.
- Eastern Europe: Nationalist movements embraced Romantic poetry and legends to revive suppressed identities under empires.
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Romanticism inspired not only revolutions of the heart, but also revolutions of national identity, setting the stage for the unifications of Germany and Italy later in the 19th century.
Why Romanticism Matters
Romanticism was more than an aesthetic movement, it was a deep cultural shift that transformed how Europeans understood the self, society, and the world. It reflected disillusionment with Enlightenment ideals and the chaos of revolution and war, while laying the emotional and ideological foundation for the modern age of nationalism, individualism, and social activism.
🎥 Watch: AP Europe - French Revolution & Neoclassical Art
Key Terms to Review (34)
Allegory: An allegory is a narrative technique in which characters, events, and details symbolize broader themes and concepts, often conveying moral, political, or spiritual messages. In the context of Romanticism, allegories often explore deep emotional experiences and philosophical ideas, using metaphorical storytelling to reflect the complexities of human existence and the natural world.
Charlotte: Charlotte refers to a popular dessert that is often associated with French cuisine, typically made with fruit purée or custard and encased in a mold lined with ladyfingers or sponge cake. This dessert embodies the romanticism of culinary art, showcasing the emphasis on beauty, craftsmanship, and the pleasures of taste that characterized the Romantic movement.
Common Language and Subjects: Common Language and Subjects refers to the unifying linguistic and thematic elements used in art, literature, and philosophy during the Romantic period to foster a sense of national identity and cultural unity. This concept played a critical role in expressing shared emotions and ideals, as well as reflecting the unique experiences of different peoples and regions in Europe.
Dramatic: Dramatic refers to the expression of intense emotions and the portrayal of significant events in a way that captivates and engages an audience. In the context of Romanticism, this term highlights the movement's focus on individual experience, the beauty of nature, and the exploration of deep feelings, often contrasting with rationalism and the structured approaches of previous artistic styles.
Egypt: Egypt is a northeastern African country known for its ancient civilization, characterized by remarkable achievements in writing, architecture, and governance. During the Romantic period, Egypt became a symbol of exoticism and inspiration for artists and writers, as they sought to explore the themes of nature, history, and the human experience through its ancient monuments and cultural richness.
Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. It fostered ideas that challenged existing norms in politics, science, and society, leading to significant changes in various aspects of life across Europe and beyond.
French Flag: The French Flag, known as 'Le Tricolore', features three vertical stripes of blue, white, and red. It symbolizes the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity that were central to the French Revolution and the rise of nationalism in the 19th century.
German Countryside: The German Countryside refers to the rural areas of Germany, characterized by picturesque landscapes, small villages, and agricultural communities. During the Romantic period, these regions became symbols of a simpler, more authentic way of life that contrasted with the rapid industrialization and urbanization occurring in cities. This idealization of the countryside influenced various forms of art, literature, and philosophy during the Romantic movement.
Idealization of Family (Women and Children) and Rural Life: The idealization of family, particularly focusing on women and children, along with rural life, refers to a romanticized view that emphasizes the values of familial bonds, domestic roles, and the simplicity and purity of rural existence. This perspective emerged prominently during the Romantic period as a counter to industrialization and urbanization, celebrating the emotional connection within families and the idyllic nature of countryside living. It often portrayed women as nurturing figures and children as innocent beings, fostering a sense of nostalgia for a simpler, pastoral way of life.
Imaginary View of the Grand Gallery of the Louvre in Ruins, Hubert Robert (1796): This artwork by Hubert Robert depicts a romanticized vision of the Grand Gallery of the Louvre in a state of ruin, showcasing the blend of imagination and reality that characterizes Romanticism. Robert's painting captures the beauty of decay, invoking emotions tied to nostalgia and the sublime, which are core elements of the Romantic movement. The work reflects the fascination with history and nature's ability to reclaim man-made structures, highlighting themes of transience and the passage of time.
Industrialization: Industrialization is the process of transforming economies from agrarian-based systems to industrial ones, characterized by the mass production of goods, the use of machinery, and the development of factories. This transformation significantly altered social structures, economic practices, and cultural norms across Europe.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Jean-Jacques Rousseau was an influential 18th-century philosopher known for his ideas about the social contract, individual freedom, and the natural goodness of humanity. His work laid the groundwork for modern political thought and emphasized the importance of emotion and nature in contrast to the rationalism of earlier Enlightenment thinkers. Rousseau's views on education and governance had a significant impact on both the Enlightenment and Romantic movements.
Jane Austen: Jane Austen was an English novelist known for her keen observations of early 19th-century English society, particularly regarding themes of love, marriage, and social class. Her work is celebrated for its wit, irony, and realism, aligning with the ideals of Romanticism by emphasizing individual experience and emotional depth in storytelling. Austen's novels reflect a transition in literature that values personal insight and character development, marking her as a significant figure in both the Romantic movement and the development of the modern novel.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer, statesman, and naturalist whose work played a key role in shaping the Romantic movement in literature and art. His exploration of human emotion, nature, and individuality influenced not only German literature but also broader European Romanticism, emphasizing the importance of personal experience and emotional depth.
Liberty Leading the People, Eugène Delacroix (1830): Liberty Leading the People is a renowned painting by Eugène Delacroix, created in 1830, symbolizing the July Revolution in France. The artwork embodies the ideals of Romanticism, highlighting themes of freedom, national pride, and the struggle for liberty, with the figure of Liberty personified as a strong and vibrant woman leading a diverse group of revolutionaries towards a brighter future.
Middle East: The Middle East is a geographic region that encompasses Western Asia and parts of North Africa, traditionally characterized by its cultural, historical, and political significance. This area has been a crossroads of civilizations and trade routes, influencing various movements, including Romanticism, as well as shaping the outcomes of major diplomatic efforts like peace settlements following conflicts.
Narrator/Writer’s Emotions and Inner Thoughts: Narrator/Writer’s Emotions and Inner Thoughts refer to the feelings and mental states expressed by the narrator or writer within a text, often reflecting their personal experiences, beliefs, and perspectives. This concept is crucial in understanding how emotions influence the narrative voice, shaping the reader's connection to the characters and events. Through these emotions, writers can evoke empathy, create tension, and provide deeper insights into the human experience, which are essential aspects of Romanticism.
Nature, Beauty, Personal Expression, Imagination: These four concepts are central to the Romantic movement, emphasizing the importance of individual experience and emotional depth. Nature is celebrated as a source of inspiration and spirituality, while beauty is viewed as an essential aspect of human experience. Personal expression reflects the inner feelings and thoughts of the individual artist or writer, and imagination is seen as a powerful force that allows individuals to transcend the mundane and connect with deeper truths.
Picturesque: The term 'picturesque' refers to a visual aesthetic that emphasizes beauty, charm, and the qualities of a scene that make it appear like a picture or painting. In the context of Romanticism, it embodies the ideals of nature and emotion, where landscapes are valued not just for their physical attributes but for their ability to evoke feelings and inspire the imagination.
Rationalism and Industrialization: Rationalism is an intellectual movement that emphasizes reason and logic as the primary sources of knowledge, often contrasting with emotional or supernatural explanations. During the period of industrialization, rationalism fueled advancements in science and technology, promoting a systematic approach to problem-solving and innovation. This mindset was pivotal in shaping modern industry, as it encouraged a break from traditional practices and a focus on efficiency, leading to significant societal transformations.
Revolution: A revolution is a significant and often violent change in political power or organizational structures that occurs in a relatively short period of time. Revolutions can stem from widespread discontent, and they often seek to overthrow existing systems, whether they be political, social, or economic, leading to the establishment of new regimes or ideologies.
Romantic Literature: Romantic Literature is a literary movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, emphasizing emotion, individualism, nature, and the sublime as a reaction against the rationalism of the Enlightenment and the industrial revolution. This genre celebrates personal expression and imagination, often focusing on themes like beauty, love, and the connection between humanity and nature, reflecting broader cultural shifts during its time.
Romanticism: Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century as a response to the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment. It emphasized emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature, contrasting with the rationalism of preceding eras. This movement influenced various cultural expressions, shaping new ideas about society, art, and politics.
Romantic Art: Romantic Art refers to a movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature over the rationalism and order characteristic of the preceding Neoclassical period. This style often sought to express personal feelings and the sublime beauty of the natural world, reflecting broader themes of Romanticism that celebrated creativity and the human experience.
Scientific Revolution: The Scientific Revolution was a period from the late 16th century to the 18th century during which new ideas in science emerged, fundamentally changing the way humanity understood the natural world. This era marked a shift from a reliance on religious explanations and classical authorities to empirical evidence and the scientific method, influencing various fields such as astronomy, physics, biology, and chemistry.
Struggles Against Societal Norms: Struggles Against Societal Norms refer to the resistance or challenges faced by individuals or groups when confronting established conventions, beliefs, and values within society. In the context of Romanticism, these struggles often manifested through art, literature, and philosophical movements that sought to elevate personal expression, individual experience, and emotional depth over rigid societal expectations and rationalism.
Symbolism: Symbolism is an artistic movement that emerged in the late 19th century, characterized by the use of symbols to express ideas, emotions, and concepts rather than depicting reality directly. This approach allowed artists and writers to convey deeper meanings and evoke feelings through imagery and metaphor, reflecting the complexities of human experience. In the context of Romanticism, symbolism played a crucial role in emphasizing individualism and the exploration of the inner self.
The Shadows of French Heroes who died in the wars of Liberty, received by Ossian Anne-Louis Girodet (1802): This artwork by Anne-Louis Girodet depicts the aftermath of the Revolutionary Wars, emphasizing the themes of heroism and sacrifice for liberty. It connects to Romanticism through its focus on emotion, national identity, and the glorification of the past, reflecting a yearning for heroic ideals in a time of turmoil.
The Sorrows of Young Werther: The Sorrows of Young Werther is a novel by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, published in 1774, that tells the story of a young artist named Werther who falls hopelessly in love with a woman named Lotte. The book is often seen as a key work of Romanticism, capturing themes of intense emotion, nature, and the struggle against societal norms. It reflects the Romantic ideal of individualism and expresses deep feelings of melancholy and unrequited love, which resonated with readers and influenced later literary movements.
Unconventional Heroes and Heroines: Unconventional heroes and heroines refer to characters in literature and art who defy traditional norms of heroism and femininity, often showcasing complex personalities and flawed characteristics. They embody the Romantic spirit by challenging societal expectations and embracing individuality, emotions, and personal experiences, standing out in a world that often glorifies more conventional figures.
Unrequited Love: Unrequited love refers to a one-sided romantic attraction where one person has feelings for someone who does not return those feelings. This theme is often prevalent in Romanticism, where deep emotional expression and the exploration of individual feelings are central. Unrequited love can lead to profound suffering and longing, which are frequently depicted in art and literature from this period, highlighting the complexities of human emotion and desire.
Urbanization: Urbanization refers to the process by which an increasing percentage of a population comes to live in urban areas, often leading to the growth of cities and changes in social, economic, and cultural dynamics. This phenomenon was significantly influenced by various developments, including industrialization, which transformed societies and reshaped human interactions.
War: War is a conflict between organized groups that involves violence, military action, and often significant societal and political repercussions. Throughout history, wars have shaped nations, influenced cultures, and altered the course of events in profound ways, intertwining with various social movements and ideological shifts.
Werther: Werther refers to the protagonist of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's novel 'The Sorrows of Young Werther,' which is a seminal work in the Romantic literary movement. The character embodies the intense emotions, individualism, and nature-centric themes that define Romanticism, showcasing the struggle between personal desire and societal expectations. The novel’s influence sparked a wave of Werther fever across Europe, representing a shift towards emotional depth and subjective experience in literature.