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Table of Contents
Unit 5 Overview: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century
5.1 Contextualizing 18th-Century States
5.2 The Rise of Global Markets
5.3 Britain's Ascendency
5.4 The French Revolution
5.5 Effects of the French Revolution
5.6 Napoleon's Rise, Dominance, and Defeat
5.7 The Congress of Vienna
5.8 Romanticism
5.9 Continuity and Change in the 18th-Century States

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5.4 The French Revolution

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Setting the Stage: France in Crisis

In the decades leading up to 1789, France stood as a cultural giant in Europe, admired for its art, wealth, and royal opulence. Yet beneath the glitter of Versailles, deep cracks were forming. A combination of economic failure, social inequality, and new Enlightenment ideas led to a full-scale revolution that would challenge the foundations of monarchy, religion, and hierarchy across Europe.

Causes of the French Revolution

Enlightenment Thought

The Enlightenment gave rise to new ideals about government, liberty, and natural rights. Philosophers like Locke, Rousseau, and Voltaire encouraged individuals to question traditional authority and imagine a society built on reason and equality.

These ideas reached not only intellectuals but also the bourgeoisie, or educated middle class, who saw the old system (Ancien Régime) as corrupt and outdated. Inspired by the success of the American Revolution, many believed radical change in France was both necessary and possible.

Economic Collapse

France was deep in debt after its costly involvement in the Seven Years' War and its financial support of the American Revolution. The tax burden fell almost entirely on the Third Estate—the vast majority of the population—while the clergy (First Estate) and nobility (Second Estate) enjoyed privileges and exemptions.

The failure of reform efforts by Louis XVI and his finance ministers—along with food shortages caused by poor harvests—created skyrocketing bread prices. Hunger and hardship spread quickly through both the countryside and cities.

Social Structure and Political Breakdown

The Three Estates & the Estates-General

France’s social and political order was organized into Three Estates:

  • First Estate – The clergy (less than 1% of the population), who were exempt from most taxes and collected tithes from the people.
  • Second Estate – The nobility (about 2% of the population), who owned about 25% of the land and also paid little to no taxes.
  • Third Estate – Everyone else: peasants, urban workers, merchants, artisans, and the bourgeoisie (roughly 98% of the population). Despite their size and economic contribution, the Third Estate bore nearly all the tax burden.

While the First and Second Estates lived lives of privilege, the Third Estate was crushed by taxes and feudal obligations. These included:

  • The taille – a direct land tax paid almost exclusively by the Third Estate
  • The gabelle – a harsh tax on salt, essential for food preservation
  • Feudal dues – peasants were forced to pay rents, perform unpaid labor (the corvée), and give portions of their crops to local lords
  • Tithes – payments to the Church, often amounting to 10% of a peasant's income
  • Taxes on food, wine, bread, and basic goods in daily life

⭐ To make matters worse, the Third Estate had no real political power. At the Estates-General, each Estate received only one vote—despite the Third Estate making up nearly the entire population. The First and Second Estates often voted together, outvoting the Third and preserving their privileges.

This imbalance of power and injustice helped ignite the Revolution, as members of the Third Estate began to demand representation, fairness, and reform.

The National Assembly & Tennis Court Oath

Frustrated, the Third Estate broke away and declared itself the National Assembly, vowing to draft a constitution. When locked out of the Estates-General, they took the Tennis Court Oath, pledging to create a new government for France.

Meanwhile, popular anger exploded with the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, a symbolic attack on tyranny.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

In August 1789, the National Assembly passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, affirming that all men are born free and equal, with rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. It became the ideological backbone of the Revolution.

Women in the Revolution 👩‍🦰

Women played a powerful early role in the revolution. They led protests, marched on Versailles demanding bread and reform, and published calls for equality. ==Olympe de Gouges responded to the Declaration of the Rights of Man with her own Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791), calling for women to enjoy the same rights as men.

Yet despite their activism, women's rights were ultimately rejected by the revolutionary governments. De Gouges was executed in 1793, and women were banned from political clubs and assembly after 1795—showing the revolution's limitations in achieving its own ideals.

Phases of the Revolution

Phase 1: Moderate Reform (1789–1791)

  • Creation of a constitutional monarchy
  • Abolition of feudal privileges
  • Nationalized the Catholic Church (Civil Constitution of the Clergy)
  • The king lost power, but remained head of state

While these reforms pleased moderate revolutionaries, radicals believed they didn’t go far enough—especially when the king attempted to flee the country in 1791 (Flight to Varennes).

Phase 2: Radical Revolution & the Reign of Terror (1792–1794)

France became a Republic, and King Louis XVI was executed in 1793. ==The Jacobins, led by Robespierre, took control and imposed radical reforms—including a new calendar and state-sponsored de-Christianization.==

The Committee of Public Safety initiated the Reign of Terror, executing tens of thousands of "enemies of the revolution" by guillotine. This included nobles, clergy, moderates—and eventually Robespierre himself in 1794.

Despite its violence, this phase also:

  • Established universal male suffrage
  • Abolished slavery in French colonies (briefly
  • Attempted to introduce social welfare reforms

Phase 3: Thermidorian Reaction & the Directory (1794–1799)

After Robespierre’s death, moderates regained power. They ended the Terror, banned radical clubs, and restored property rights. But the new Directory (1795–1799) was corrupt and unpopular.

  • Women's political activity was further restricted
  • Catholicism regained influence
  • Royalists and radicals alike sought power

Amid this instability, a brilliant general named Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup in 1799—ending the revolution and beginning his rise as Emperor.

The Legacy of the French Revolution

The Revolution began with the promise of equality, citizen rights, and government by the people. It shook the foundations of monarchy across Europe and inspired liberal and nationalist movements for decades.

But despite these lofty ideals, the Revolution's outcomes were complex and contradictory:

  • Slavery, abolished in 1794, was reinstated by Napoleon in 1802.
  • Women, early leaders in the movement, were excluded from the political order.
  • The monarchy returned in 1815 after Napoleon’s fall.

Yet the Revolution irrevocably changed how Europeans thought about sovereignty, citizenship, and power. It marked the beginning of modern political ideology—liberalism, radicalism, conservatism—and the struggle to define who counts as "the people."

🎥 Watch: AP Europe - 7 Years' War & American Revolution

🎥 Watch: AP Europe - French Revolution Part 1

Key Terms to Review (32)

American Revolution: The American Revolution was a colonial revolt against British rule from 1775 to 1783, leading to the establishment of the United States of America. It was fueled by Enlightenment ideas of liberty and democracy, as well as opposition to British taxation without representation. The revolution not only inspired subsequent revolutionary movements globally but also marked a significant shift in the balance of power between colonial empires and their colonies.
Bastille: The Bastille was a fortress in Paris that became a symbol of the tyranny of the Bourbon monarchy during the French Revolution. Its storming on July 14, 1789, marked the beginning of the revolution and the fight for liberty and equality in France, embodying the people's anger against oppression and their desire for change.
Bourgeoisie: The bourgeoisie refers to the middle class in society, particularly in relation to their economic power and influence, which emerged prominently during the transition from feudalism to capitalism. This social class played a crucial role in shaping modern economies and political systems, as they often owned the means of production and advocated for political rights and freedoms that reflected their economic interests.
Committee of Public Safety: The Committee of Public Safety was a political body during the French Revolution that was established in April 1793 to protect the Republic from internal and external threats. It played a crucial role in the Reign of Terror, overseeing the execution of perceived enemies and implementing policies to safeguard the revolutionary government. The Committee became synonymous with radical measures and significant government control, shaping the course of the Revolution.
Constitution of 1791: The Constitution of 1791 was the first written constitution in France, created during the French Revolution, which established a constitutional monarchy and aimed to limit the powers of the king while ensuring civil liberties for citizens. This document marked a significant shift from absolute monarchy to a system where the authority of the monarchy was constrained by law, reflecting Enlightenment ideas about governance and human rights.
Cult of Reason: The Cult of Reason was a radical movement that emerged during the French Revolution, aiming to replace traditional religious beliefs with a new secular faith based on reason and scientific understanding. It sought to promote the ideals of the Enlightenment and was characterized by the celebration of reason as the ultimate source of authority and morality, which challenged the influence of Christianity in French society. The movement culminated in various public festivals and rituals designed to glorify reason and denounce superstition.
Enlightenment Ideas: Enlightenment Ideas refer to a set of philosophical principles that emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries, advocating reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. These ideas influenced various movements and revolutions by promoting concepts such as liberty, equality, and justice, shaping modern political and social frameworks.
Estates-General: The Estates-General was a legislative assembly in France representing the three estates of the realm: the clergy, the nobility, and the common people. This assembly played a crucial role in the lead-up to the French Revolution, as it was convened by King Louis XVI in 1789 to address the financial crisis facing France and resulted in significant political upheaval.
French Republic: The French Republic refers to the democratic government established in France following the French Revolution, marking the end of monarchy and feudal privileges. It represents a significant shift in political power towards popular sovereignty and the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The French Republic has undergone multiple iterations throughout history, reflecting the evolving nature of French politics in the wake of revolutionary ideals and reactions against them.
French Revolution: The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, which fundamentally changed the structure of French society and government. It marked the rise of popular sovereignty, the end of absolute monarchy, and the birth of modern democracy, influencing revolutionary movements worldwide.
Great Terror: The Great Terror, also known as the Reign of Terror, was a period during the French Revolution from September 1793 to July 1794, characterized by extreme political repression and mass executions of perceived enemies of the revolution. It was led primarily by the Jacobins and their leader, Maximilien Robespierre, who believed that terror was necessary to protect the revolutionary government and achieve its goals. This era marked a pivotal shift in the revolution, where radical measures were taken to eliminate opposition and consolidate power.
Jacobin Club: The Jacobin Club was a political group during the French Revolution known for its radical views and advocacy for republicanism. Originally formed as a debating society, it became a driving force behind many revolutionary actions, including the establishment of the First French Republic. The club was influential in pushing for policies that favored the lower classes and promoted the use of terror against perceived enemies of the revolution.
Liberal Reform Phase: The Liberal Reform Phase refers to a period during the French Revolution when significant political, social, and economic changes were implemented in an effort to establish a constitutional government and promote individual rights. This phase was characterized by the shift from radical revolutionary ideals to more moderate reforms aimed at creating a stable society based on principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, which became essential to the development of modern democratic systems in France and beyond.
Louis XVI: Louis XVI was the King of France from 1774 until his deposition in 1792 during the French Revolution. He is often associated with the collapse of the monarchy and the radical changes that swept through France, as his inability to address the financial crisis and social unrest ultimately led to his execution by guillotine.
March on Versailles (October March): The March on Versailles, also known as the October March, was a pivotal event during the French Revolution where a large group of women, motivated by food shortages and economic distress, marched from Paris to the royal palace at Versailles on October 5-6, 1789. This dramatic protest reflected the growing unrest among the populace and underscored the deepening crisis facing King Louis XVI and the monarchy, ultimately leading to significant changes in government and societal structures in France.
Marie Antoinette: Marie Antoinette was the last queen of France before the French Revolution, married to King Louis XVI. Her extravagant lifestyle and perceived indifference to the plight of the French people made her a symbol of the excesses of the monarchy, contributing to growing discontent that ultimately led to revolution.
Maximilien Robespierre: Maximilien Robespierre was a key figure in the French Revolution, known for his role as a radical leader of the Jacobin Club and his influence during the Reign of Terror. He was a strong advocate for revolutionary ideals and pushed for social justice, equality, and the establishment of a Republic of Virtue, but his leadership also led to widespread executions and the consolidation of power that ultimately resulted in his downfall.
National Guard: The National Guard was a military force formed during the French Revolution, primarily consisting of citizens who volunteered to maintain order and protect the newly established revolutionary government. It played a crucial role in the early years of the revolution, as it aimed to provide a semblance of stability while also embodying the principles of liberty and civic responsibility.
National Assembly: The National Assembly was a revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate in France during the early stages of the French Revolution. It marked a significant shift in power from the monarchy to the people, as it sought to establish a constitutional government and promote the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The assembly played a crucial role in drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which laid the foundation for modern human rights and democratic principles.
Olympe de Gouges: Olympe de Gouges was a French playwright and political activist known for her advocacy of women's rights during the French Revolution. She is best remembered for her work 'Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen,' which challenged the traditional roles of women in society and called for gender equality. Her ideas and writings highlighted the need for women's voices in the revolutionary discourse, emphasizing that the rights declared in 1789 should extend to all citizens, regardless of gender.
Phases of the French Revolution: The Phases of the French Revolution refer to the distinct periods during the revolution from 1789 to 1799, each characterized by different political dynamics, key events, and ideological shifts. These phases include the National Assembly, the Reign of Terror, and the rise of Napoleon, showcasing the revolution's transformation from a fight for liberty and equality to a complex struggle for power and governance. Each phase significantly influenced not only France but also had far-reaching effects on Europe and the world.
Reign of Terror Phase: The Reign of Terror was a period during the French Revolution from September 1793 to July 1794, characterized by extreme political repression and mass executions of perceived enemies of the revolution. It was marked by the use of the guillotine as a symbol of state-sponsored violence, aiming to eliminate counter-revolutionary threats and consolidate power within the revolutionary government. This phase highlighted the intense fear and paranoia that gripped France as radical revolutionaries sought to protect their ideals from internal and external opposition.
September Massacre: The September Massacre refers to a series of killings that took place in Paris from September 2 to September 6, 1792, during the early phases of the French Revolution. This event marked a significant turning point as revolutionaries sought to eliminate perceived threats from prisoners who were believed to be counter-revolutionaries. The violence was fueled by paranoia and fear of foreign invasion, leading to the execution of around 1,400 prisoners, including nobles and clergy.
Seven Years’ War: The Seven Years’ War was a global conflict that lasted from 1756 to 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and often considered the first 'world war.' It reshaped colonial empires and set the stage for the rise of British dominance in North America and India, while simultaneously contributing to financial strains on European powers that played a role in the events leading up to significant revolutions, including the French Revolution.
Tennis Court Oath: The Tennis Court Oath was a pivotal event during the early stages of the French Revolution, where members of the Third Estate vowed not to disband until they had drafted a new constitution for France. This act of defiance against King Louis XVI marked a significant turning point, demonstrating the resolve of the Third Estate to fight for political representation and equality. It symbolized the growing demand for democratic reforms and the rejection of absolute monarchy, setting the stage for further revolutionary actions.
The Declaration of Rights of Women and Citizen: The Declaration of Rights of Women and Citizen, authored by Olympe de Gouges in 1791, is a foundational document that asserts the equality of women and their rights in the context of the French Revolution. It was created as a response to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which excluded women from its assertions of liberty and equality, highlighting the limitations placed on women's rights during this transformative period in French history.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, adopted in 1789, is a fundamental document of the French Revolution that outlines the individual and collective rights of all citizens. It emphasizes principles such as liberty, equality, and fraternity, which became cornerstones for modern democratic societies. This declaration also served as an inspiration for other democratic movements around the world and established a framework for civil rights that challenged the existing monarchic and aristocratic privileges.
Thermidorian Directory: The Thermidorian Directory refers to the government established in France after the fall of Maximilien Robespierre in July 1794, marking a shift away from the radical phase of the French Revolution. This period was characterized by a reaction against the excesses of the Reign of Terror and the rise of more moderate political factions. The Thermidorian Directory faced significant challenges, including economic instability and political unrest, while attempting to navigate the turbulent waters left by previous revolutionary governments.
Thermidorian Reaction: The Thermidorian Reaction refers to the political shift that occurred in France in July 1794, leading to the overthrow and execution of Maximilien Robespierre and the end of the radical phase of the French Revolution. This period marked a reaction against the excesses of the Reign of Terror and signified a move towards a more moderate government, as factions within the revolutionary leadership sought to stabilize France after years of turmoil and violence.
Thomas Jefferson: Thomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States, serving from 1801 to 1809, and is best known for his role as the principal author of the Declaration of Independence. His political philosophy emphasized liberty, democracy, and individual rights, which were significant influences during the period of the French Revolution.
Three Estates: The Three Estates were the social and political divisions in France before the French Revolution, consisting of the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (nobility), and Third Estate (commoners). This system structured society, determining rights, privileges, and responsibilities, ultimately leading to the inequalities that fueled revolutionary sentiments among the common people.
White Terror: White Terror refers to a series of violent reprisals and purges against perceived enemies of the revolution, particularly aimed at revolutionaries and leftist groups, that occurred in France during the late 1790s following the Reign of Terror. It represented a reactionary backlash against the radical measures taken during the earlier phases of the French Revolution, leading to a rise in conservative sentiments and restoring power to those who had opposed revolutionary ideals.
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5.5 Effects of the French Revolution