Cultural Change and Continuity (1648–1815)
The 18th century was marked by rapid cultural changes shaped by Enlightenment ideals, growing urbanization, and increasing literacy. While traditional institutions like the monarchy and the Catholic Church remained powerful,
Enlightenment thinkers began to challenge authority through the power of reason, education, and public discourse. The spread of new ideas was aided by print culture, as books, newspapers, and pamphlets circulated widely—despite the presence of state and religious censorship.
- Salons and Coffeehouses became centers of intellectual exchange, especially in France and England, where philosophes debated politics, science, and art.
- The growth of public opinion allowed ideas to move beyond elite circles and into middle-class households, helping to build momentum for future revolutions, especially the French and American Revolutions.
💡 While Enlightenment thought expanded access to knowledge, many social traditions remained unchanged. ==Women participated in intellectual life, but their rights were still limited. The working poor largely remained excluded from cultural developments and political reform.==
Artistic Movements in the 18th Century
Baroque Art (Before 1750)
The Baroque style, developed in the 17th century, remained prominent into the early 18th century. It was known for its grandeur, intense emotion, dramatic lighting, and ornate detail. Baroque art served political and religious purposes:
- Monarchs used baroque architecture and portraiture to glorify their power and divine right.
- The Catholic Church used Baroque works in the Counter-Reformation to inspire faith through awe and splendor.
Key Artists:
- Caravaggio – master of light and shadow (chiaroscuro)
- Bernini – sculptor of St. Peter’s Baldachin and the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa
- Rembrandt – Dutch painter who explored human emotion in secular and religious scenes
Rococo Art (1730–1780)
Rococo emerged as a reaction to the seriousness of Baroque. ==It reflected the tastes of the French aristocracy and focused on themes of love, playfulness, and leisure, often in lavish settings.==
- Rococo was light, decorative, and pastel-colored, often depicting upper-class life in garden scenes, romantic encounters, and elegant interiors.
- Unlike Baroque, which was used to project power, Rococo emphasized pleasure, wit, and sensuality, marking a cultural shift among the elite.
Key Artist:
- François Boucher – painted classical myths with erotic and playful tones
- Jean-Honoré Fragonard – known for The Swing, which exemplifies Rococo’s elegance and whimsy
Neoclassicism (Late 18th Century)
As Enlightenment ideals took hold, Neoclassicism rose in opposition to Rococo. It reflected a return to order, morality, and civic virtue—drawing inspiration from Ancient Greece and Rome.
- Neoclassical works celebrated republican values, reason, and discipline, aligning with Enlightenment emphasis on rational thought and the public good.
- The movement paralleled the political revolutions of the era, especially the American and French Revolutions.
Key Artist:
- Jacques-Louis David – painted historical and moral themes, such as Oath of the Horatii and The Death of Socrates
💡 NOTE: You should be aware of the social, political, and economic changes, and how people/society reflects these changes in art!
The Consumer Revolution
The 18th century also witnessed a Consumer Revolution, a dramatic increase in the availability and consumption of goods, particularly among the middle class.
- Mass production and expanding trade networks, especially from global empires, brought goods like sugar, tea, cotton, mirrors, and porcelain into more homes.
- As material goods became more accessible, people began to express identity, status, and values through what they owned, marking a shift in social life and culture.
This rise in consumption also affected women, who were often responsible for household purchases and became key participants in shaping consumer trends. The emergence of department stores, printed catalogs, and window shopping changed how Europeans interacted with products and created the early foundations of modern consumer culture.
Leisure and Urban Life
As more people moved to cities during and after the Agricultural Revolution, leisure became a visible part of cultural life.
- Middle and upper-class Europeans attended salons, concerts, theaters, and coffeehouses.
- Public parks, gardens, and promenades offered spaces for recreation and social display.
- Popular pastimes included gambling, card games, horse racing, opera, and literature, all of which were increasingly enjoyed by the bourgeoisie.
While the aristocracy still dominated high culture, urban middle classes developed their own cultural habits, and the working class engaged in public celebrations, fairs, and local festivals.
Significance of 18th-Century Cultural Shifts
- The Enlightenment encouraged a new worldview centered on reason, human rights, and skepticism of traditional authority, which reshaped cultural and artistic expression.
- Art transitioned from religious grandeur (Baroque), to aristocratic indulgence (Rococo), to civic-minded reform (Neoclassicism).
- Print culture and consumerism helped democratize knowledge and goods, allowing more people to participate in cultural life, even if social inequalities persisted.
These developments laid the groundwork for political upheaval and modernization in the 19th century, as Enlightenment values and cultural shifts began to challenge the old order across Europe.
🎥 Watch: AP European History - New Societal Order
🎥 Watch: AP European History - Rocco Art
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Baroque art | An artistic style from the 17th and early 18th centuries that emphasized religious feeling and was used by monarchs to demonstrate state power. |
| bourgeois society | The commercial middle-class society whose outlook and values increasingly influenced 18th-century art and literature. |
| censorship | The suppression or control of information, publications, and speech to limit public expression and dissent. |
| consumer revolution | An 18th-century transformation in European society characterized by increased purchasing of new goods for homes and new leisure activities. |
| Enlightenment ideals | 18th-century intellectual principles emphasizing reason, citizenship, and political participation that influenced artistic and cultural movements. |
| leisure activities | New recreational venues and pursuits that emerged in 18th-century Europe as part of the consumer revolution, including coffeehouses, taverns, and theaters. |
| literate public | The growing population of people who could read and access printed materials in 18th-century Europe. |
| Neoclassicism | An 18th-century artistic movement that expressed Enlightenment ideals of citizenship and political participation through a return to classical forms. |
| printed materials | Various forms of published content including newspapers, periodicals, books, and pamphlets that served a growing literate public in the 18th century. |
| privacy | A new concern in 18th-century European culture reflected in home design with private retreats and in literature exploring private emotion. |
| public opinion | Collective views and attitudes of the general population, increasingly shaped by printed materials and literacy in the 18th century. |
| the Encyclopédie | A major 18th-century French publication that compiled knowledge and reflected Enlightenment ideals. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is 18th-century culture and why is it important for the AP exam?
18th-century culture and arts = how people read, looked, and lived in the Enlightenment era. It includes the spread of printed materials (newspapers, periodicals, the Encyclopédie), salon and coffeehouse culture, shifts in art (from Baroque/Rococo to Neoclassicism), the rise of the novel, and the consumer revolution (porcelain, mirrors, private boudoirs). It matters for AP Euro because Topic 4.5 ties directly to CED claims about the bourgeois public sphere, changing artistic themes (private life and public good), and how print and popular culture shaped public opinion and challenges to norms. Expect MCQs and SAQs that ask you to analyze images/texts (art, pamphlets), and DBQ/LEQ prompts asking you to explain continuity/change or causation using those developments. Review the topic study guide for examples and key terms (Encyclopédie, salons, coffeehouses, Neoclassicism) here: (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5). For unit review and 1,000+ practice questions go to (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4) and (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did printed materials like newspapers and pamphlets change European society in the 1700s?
Printed materials—newspapers, pamphlets, the Encyclopédie—helped create a new “public sphere” in the 1700s. Even with censorship, more and cheaper print reached a growing literate bourgeois audience, fueling coffeehouse and salon debates and forming public opinion (CED KC-2.3.II.B, keywords: coffeehouses, salons, Encyclopédie). Pamphlets spread Enlightenment critiques of religion, monarchy, and social norms, while periodicals circulated scientific ideas and travel accounts that exposed Europeans to non-European peoples (KC-2.3.II.C). That made debate more widespread and quicker, helped coordinate reform movements, and gave writers and readers evidence and language you can cite on AP short-answer/DBQ/LEQ prompts about cultural change. For a focused review, see the Topic 4.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5) and Unit 4 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4). For practice applying this on exam-style questions, check Fiveable’s practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the difference between Baroque art and Neoclassical art?
Baroque and Neoclassical art differ in purpose, style, and what they celebrate. Baroque (until ~1750) is dramatic, emotional, and often religious or royal—meant to inspire faith or legitimize monarchs. Think Bernini’s theatrical sculptures, Velázquez’s court portraits, and music like Bach and Handel. Neoclassical (late 18th c.) looks back to ancient Rome/Greece, favors clarity, balance, and moral seriousness, and reflects Enlightenment ideas about citizenship and the public good—e.g., Jacques-Louis David and the Pantheon in Paris. Baroque uses movement, rich color, and grandiosity; Neoclassical uses restrained composition, classical forms, and civic themes. On the AP exam you’ll analyze images for purpose, audience, and context (use those sourcing and visual-analysis skills in MCQs and FRQs). For a deeper CED-aligned review, see the Topic 4.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did art move away from religious themes to focus more on private life and politics?
Art shifted away from religious and courtly subjects because Europe's social and intellectual context changed. The print revolution, salons, and coffeehouses created a bourgeois public sphere and public opinion that wanted art reflecting everyday life, private feeling, and civic values (CED KC-2.3.II.B, KC-2.3.V.B). The Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason, citizenship, and moral behavior favored Neoclassicism and subjects about civic virtue (Jacques-Louis David, the Pantheon) over Baroque religious spectacle. At the same time the consumer revolution made private homes sites of taste (porcelain, prints, mirrors) and novels encouraged introspection (Vermeer, Rembrandt, Austen). Politically, art became a vehicle for debate about the public good and participation rather than just divine or royal authority. On the AP exam you’ll often analyze images or texts that show this shift in multiple-choice, short-answer, or DBQ prompts—practice interpreting visual evidence. See the Topic 4.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I'm confused about how the Enlightenment affected art and literature - can someone explain this connection?
The Enlightenment shifted art and literature from celebrating religion and royal power to reflecting reason, the individual, and bourgeois life. Think: print culture (newspapers, periodicals, the Encyclopédie) and salons/coffeehouses spread ideas and created a “public sphere” that demanded works about everyday life and civic virtue (CED: KC-2.3.II.B, II.C, KC-2.3.V). In visual art that meant a move from Baroque/Rococo decoration to Neoclassicism (Jacques-Louis David, Pantheon) that modeled civic duty and classical reason. In literature, the novel and realist writers (Defoe, Richardson, Fielding, Austen, Goethe) focused on private emotion, domestic space (boudoirs), and moral choice. The consumer revolution (porcelain, mirrors, prints) and new leisure venues reinforced these themes (CED: KC-2.4.II). On the AP exam this shows up in short-answer and FRQs as evidence of cultural change—use specific artists/authors and print culture to support claims (see Topic 4.5 study guide on Fiveable for examples and practice) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5). For unit review and extra practice, check the Unit 4 page (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What was the consumer revolution and how did it change people's daily lives?
The consumer revolution was an 18th-century rise in the availability and variety of manufactured goods (porcelain, mirrors, printed prints, cotton/linens) and leisure venues (coffeehouses, theaters, opera houses) that shifted culture from public, status-driven displays to private, domestic life. It encouraged new concerns for privacy (boudoirs, novels that probe individual feeling), helped create a bourgeois public sphere (more newspapers, periodicals, the Encyclopédie), and expanded leisure and social mixing outside aristocratic courts. Daily life changed: middle-class homes were more comfortably furnished, people spent income on nonessential goods, reading and coffeehouse debate spread public opinion, and art/literature reflected commercial and Enlightenment values (Rococo → Neoclassicism, Jane Austen, Defoe). On the AP exam, this shows up in short-answer or LEQ/DBQ prompts about cultural change, public opinion, or shifts in art—use specific examples (Meissen porcelain, coffeehouses, the novel) and the Topic 4.5 study guide for review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5). For practice, try Fiveable’s AP Euro problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about the changes in European cultural life from 1648 to 1815?
Start with a clear, specific thesis that answers how cultural life changed from 1648–1815 (e.g., shift from Baroque/royal-religious art to Enlightenment, bourgeois tastes, and Neoclassicism). Contextualize briefly: aftermath of Westphalia, rise of print culture, consumer revolution, Enlightenment ideas. For the DBQ you must: - Use at least four documents to support your line of reasoning and cite them by number. - Bring in one piece of outside evidence (e.g., Encyclopédie, salon culture, rise of coffeehouses, Meissen porcelain, or Jacques-Louis David). - For two documents, explain POV/purpose/audience or historical situation (sourcing). - Show continuity and change (Baroque → Rococo → Neoclassicism; religious royal patronage → bourgeois public sphere; print → public opinion). - Aim for complexity: compare regions, show multiple causes (economic, intellectual, technological), or note exceptions. Practice applying this structure with the Topic 4.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5), the Unit 4 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4), and Fiveable practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the significance of coffeehouses and taverns in 18th-century society?
Coffeehouses and taverns were crucial hubs of the 18th-century “public sphere.” Coffeehouses (especially in cities like London) hosted readers, merchants, and intellectuals who discussed newspapers, periodicals, and pamphlets—helping form public opinion and spread Enlightenment ideas. They supported the consumer revolution by selling printed news and offering a semi-formal space for debate tied to commercial life. Taverns were more mixed: they brought together artisans, sailors, and rural visitors, so political ideas and news moved across class lines. Both venues moved culture away from courtly, elite settings toward more public, bourgeois spaces (think salons, coffeehouses, newspapers). For AP Euro, you can use them as evidence of KC-2.3.II.B (growth of printed materials/public opinion) and KC-2.4.II (new leisure venues). For more on Topic 4.5, see the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did people start caring more about privacy in their homes during this period?
People began caring more about privacy at home because cultural, economic, and intellectual shifts made private life more important. Growing literacy and a booming print culture (newspapers, periodicals, novels, the Encyclopédie) encouraged people to read and form private opinions. Enlightenment ideas emphasized individual feeling and reflection, so novels and salons turned inward, valuing personal emotion and moral choice. The consumer revolution meant new household goods (porcelain, mirrors, textiles) and wealth for the bourgeoisie, so homes were redesigned with private retreats (boudoirs) for reading or intimate conversation. Art and music also shifted from public, royal themes to scenes of domestic life, reinforcing the ideal of a private sphere. For AP Euro, tie this to KC-2.3.V (arts focusing on private life) and KC-2.4.II (consumer revolution → concern for privacy). For a focused review, check the Topic 4.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Can someone explain how artists like Jacques-Louis David reflected Enlightenment ideals in their work?
Jacques-Louis David used Neoclassicism to show Enlightenment ideas—reason, civic virtue, and citizenship—instead of Baroque drama or Rococo pleasure. His clean lines, clear composition, and classical subjects (Brutus, Horatii, the Death of Marat) made moral lessons visible: citizens should act for the public good, sacrifice private interest for the nation, and value rational duty over emotion. David also tied art to politics (he supported the Revolution), so paintings became propaganda for participation and civic virtue—exactly the shift the CED highlights from glorifying monarchs to promoting political participation (KC-2.3.V.B). On the AP exam, images like David’s often show up in short-answer or document prompts where you must identify how style and content reflect broader intellectual trends. For a quick refresher, check the Topic 4.5 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the long-term effects of increased literacy and public opinion on European politics?
By expanding literacy and printed culture (newspapers, pamphlets, periodicals, the Encyclopédie) a literate public formed opinions outside court control—what the CED calls a bourgeois public sphere. Long-term political effects: people began to question divine-right authority and traditional privilege using Enlightenment ideas; public opinion pressured rulers toward legal reform and limited absolutism (one reason for enlightened absolutism and later constitutional moves). Salons and coffeehouses spread debate, helping create networks that later fueled the American, Dutch, and French revolutionary movements and the 19th-century push for expanded political participation. Governments responded with censorship and policing of opinion, but couldn’t fully stop the spread of political critique—by 1815–1900 public opinion had become a key constraint on rulers and a driver of reform, nationalism, and representative reforms. For AP prep, you can use this Topic 4.5 study guide to link examples and docs to exam skills (contextualization, evidence) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5). For extra practice, try the AP question bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did novels by authors like Jane Austen show the values of commercial society?
Jane Austen’s novels show commercial-society values by focusing on private life, property, and social mobility rather than dynastic or religious themes. Her plots center on marriage, inheritance, and credit—how money, dowries, and legal rules shape choices and status—which reflects the consumer revolution and bourgeois public sphere (private homes, new goods, and social negotiation). Austen’s realistic style and ironic tone highlight merit, manners, and moral judgment tied to economic behavior: characters rise or falter through prudent spending, reputation, and social networks. Novels encouraged readers to reflect on private emotion and domestic virtue—key shifts in 18th-century culture noted in the CED (Topic 4.5). Use Austen as cultural evidence on AP essays/SAQs when explaining how art/literature mirrored commercial values (see the Topic 4.5 study guide for more context: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5). For extra practice, try Fiveable’s AP Euro questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the difference between how Baroque artists like Bernini glorified monarchy versus how later artists promoted citizenship?
Baroque artists like Bernini glorified monarchy by making rulers look divinely ordained and spectacularly powerful—grand, dramatic sculptures and church commissions tied royal authority to religion and awe (KC-2.3.V.A). Bernini’s theatrical, emotional style aimed to reinforce state and church prestige. By mid- to late-18th century, art shifted toward private life, virtue, and public good: Neoclassicism (e.g., Jacques-Louis David, Pantheon in Paris) used classical forms and civic stories to promote citizenship, civic virtue, and political participation inspired by Enlightenment ideas (KC-2.3.V.B). For the AP exam, note this continuity/change: Baroque = spectacle & sacred monarchy; Neoclassicism = restraint, classical republican symbols, and bourgeois public values. For quick review, see the Topic 4.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5) and practice related questions at Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I missed class - what exactly is the Encyclopédie and why does it matter?
The Encyclopédie was a massive 18th-century French encyclopedia (edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert) that collected articles on science, crafts, philosophy, and politics. It wasn’t just a reference book—it linked knowledge across disciplines, used cross-references, and included contributors like Voltaire and Rousseau. Because it circulated widely (despite repeated censorship attempts), it helped form a literate “public sphere” and spread Enlightenment ideas about reason, toleration, and criticism of traditional authority. Why it matters for AP Euro: the Encyclopédie is a prime example of KC-2.3.II.B—printed materials shaping public opinion—and KC-2.3.II.C—how science and literature challenged norms. It shows how intellectual networks supported cultural change (salons, coffeehouses) and appears often in multiple-choice/short-answer/DBQ prompts about Enlightenment influence. For a quick topic review, check the Topic 4.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to see how it’s tested.
How did European representations of people outside Europe challenge social norms during this time?
European portrayals of non-Europeans—through travel books, Encyclopédie entries, prints, theater, and salon debates—forced people to rethink assumed hierarchies. Images and texts showed different social roles, gender relations, and political systems (the “noble savage” idea, Native American or Ottoman customs), which questioned European claims of cultural superiority and the naturalness of class privilege. Coffeehouses, salons, and periodicals spread these representations, creating public opinion that sometimes criticized slavery, absolutism, or rigid gender norms (KC-2.3.II.C; KC-2.3.II.B). Artists and writers (Rococo travel scenes, Enlightenment essays) used outsiders as mirrors to promote ideas of natural rights and equality, feeding debates that later supported abolitionist and reform movements. For more on Topic 4.5 and exam-relevant examples (Encyclopédie, salons, coffeehouses), see the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-4/18th-century-culture-art/study-guide/ULBpuM6ser87t4wsA7t5). Practice applying this to DBQs/LEQs with Fiveable practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).