In this guide, we will explore the major events and processes of the 19th century that shaped European political developments. Central to this period were the forces of nationalism and imperialism, both of which significantly influenced European and global stability. These movements contributed to revolutions, unifications, and the intensification of global competition, laying the groundwork for future conflicts in the 20th century.
Struggle for Stability
The balance of power was a central issue in 19th-century European diplomacy. The idea of maintaining equilibrium between the major powers of Europe had been a guiding principle since the end of the Napoleonic Wars. However, the rise of nationalism and revolutions disrupted this balance in the following ways:
Balance of Power in the 19th Century
Balance of power refers to the distribution of power among nations to prevent any one state from becoming too dominant. The goal was to ensure no single country could impose its will on the others, thus maintaining peace and stability. European powers, like Britain, France, and Russia, played central roles in shaping this balance. However, as the century progressed, several factors caused tensions:
- Emergence of Nationalism: Nationalistic movements grew in strength, leading to the formation of new nation-states like Italy and Germany. These movements not only disrupted the existing political order but also fueled competitive dynamics between European powers.
- Rise of Revolutionary Movements: Revolutionary ideals from the French Revolution spread across Europe, inspiring uprisings and rebellions, particularly in 1848. These revolutions forced many countries to reconsider their political structures and led to the adoption of constitutional monarchies and democratic reforms in some regions.
Key Events Disrupting the Balance of Power
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Breakdown of the Concert of Europe: After the Napoleonic Wars, the Concert of Europe was established to maintain a stable balance of power through diplomacy and collective action. However, the breakdown of this system was inevitable due to:
- National Unifications: Movements like the unification of Italy (1861) and the unification of Germany (1871) disrupted the European political order. These unifications led to new nation-states, altering the political landscape and shifting the power dynamics.
- Growing Nationalism and Imperialism: As nationalism and imperialism gained traction, European powers became more competitive, seeking to expand their empires and influence. The push for imperial domination, especially in Africa and Asia, exacerbated international tensions.
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Unification of Italy and Germany:
- Italy: The unification of Italy in 1861, under the leadership of Count Camillo di Cavour, transformed Italy from a collection of fragmented states into a unified nation. This shift changed the balance of power in Europe and challenged established powers, particularly Austria, which lost influence in Italy.
- Germany: The unification of Germany in 1871, led by Otto von Bismarck, reshaped the European political landscape. Bismarck’s strategic diplomacy and military victories against Austria and France facilitated the creation of the German Empire, which altered the balance of power and positioned Germany as a dominant European force.
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Development of Global Empires and Imperialism: The rise of industrialization and technological advancements in the late 19th century, particularly during the Second Industrial Revolution, provided European powers with the means to expand their global influence. Advancements in transportation (like steamships and railroads) and military technology (such as breech-loading rifles and machine guns) made imperialism more feasible and competitive.
- Scramble for Africa: European powers, motivated by the need for resources, markets, and geopolitical influence, intensified their competition for colonies in Africa. This led to the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, where European powers divided Africa among themselves without regard for African borders or indigenous populations, heightening tensions both within Europe and between imperial powers.
Cultural and Ideological Shifts
The Impact of the Revolutions of 1848
The Revolutions of 1848, known as the Springtime of Nations, were a series of uprisings across Europe driven by demands for more democratic governance and national independence. While many of these revolutions were suppressed, they led to significant political changes:
- Constitutional Monarchies and Liberal Reforms: Many countries, such as Hungary and France, adopted constitutional monarchies or moved toward more liberal political systems. In France, the February Revolution led to the establishment of the Second Republic, and in Austria and Italy, demands for national independence grew stronger.
- Nationalism: The 1848 revolutions sparked an increasing sense of national identity, particularly in Italy and Germany, which would culminate in their unifications later in the century.
Shift from Idealism to Realism
Following the revolutions and the increasing dominance of industrialization, European intellectual thought shifted toward realism and materialism. The political instability of the time led to the rejection of utopian ideals in favor of a more practical, scientific worldview.
- Realism: This shift was reflected in the arts and literature, where realists like Gustave Courbet and Honoré Daumier focused on portraying the everyday lives of ordinary people, often highlighting social problems such as poverty and inequality.
- Materialism: In philosophy, materialism and scientific realism became more influential. Thinkers such as Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels promoted the idea that material conditions—particularly economic and class relations—shaped society and human behavior. These ideas would play a central role in the development of socialist and communist movements across Europe.
Industrialization and Technological Advances
The Second Industrial Revolution played a key role in both facilitating European imperialism and reshaping European societies. Innovations in technology and industry, including the development of new energy sources (such as electricity) and transportation (steamships and railroads), made European powers more competitive globally and allowed them to better control and exploit colonies.
- Military Advancements: The development of advanced weaponry, including the Maxim machine gun and more efficient naval technology, provided European powers with a decisive military advantage over non-European societies.
- Communication and Transportation: The telegraph and steam-powered ships allowed for faster communication and more efficient transportation, making it easier for European powers to manage and expand their global empires.
Continuities and Changes in European and Global Stability
Continuities:
- National Rivalries and Imperial Competition: Nationalism continued to drive tensions between European powers, particularly as they competed for global dominance through imperial expansion.
- Cultural Superiority: The belief in European cultural superiority persisted, justified by ideologies like Social Darwinism, which were used to justify imperialism and the exploitation of non-European peoples.
Changes:
- National Unifications: The unification of Italy and Germany drastically changed the European balance of power, creating new nation-states that would become major players in European and global politics.
- Industrial Imperialism: The Second Industrial Revolution provided the technological means for more extensive European control over global territories, intensifying competition for resources and markets.
- Intellectual Shifts: The rejection of idealistic notions in favor of more pragmatic, materialist worldviews reflected broader societal changes in Europe as nations dealt with the challenges of modernity.
In conclusion, the 19th century was marked by significant political, social, and technological changes that had both immediate and long-lasting effects on European stability. Nationalism, imperialism, and industrialization reshaped Europe and the world, creating new opportunities for economic and political power while also generating new conflicts and tensions that would eventually lead to the events of the 20th century.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is nationalism and why did it mess up European stability in the 1800s?
Nationalism = loyalty to a shared culture, language, or history (a nation) instead of to a dynasty or empire. In the 1800s it destabilized Europe because people in multiethnic states (Ottoman, Habsburg, Russian) wanted self-rule or unification with their ethnic kin. That fueled revolutions (1848), the Risorgimento in Italy (Cavour, Garibaldi), and German unification under Bismarck’s Realpolitik and the Franco-Prussian War—all of which broke the Concert of Europe and shifted the balance of power (CED KC-3.4, KC-3.5). Nationalism also justified imperial rivalry abroad (New Imperialism, Scramble for Africa), raising tensions between Great Powers. On the AP exam you’ll often explain causation: link nationalist motives to outcomes (unification, wars, changing alliances) in DBQs/LEQs. For a focused review, see the Topic 7.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv). For more practice, check Unit 7 and the 1,000+ AP practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7; https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did the Concert of Europe actually work and why did it fall apart?
The Concert of Europe was an informal system (the Congress System) where the Great Powers—Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and later France—met diplomatically after 1815 to uphold the balance of power and suppress revolutionary threat (Metternich’s conservatism). They used congresses, consultations, and occasional interventions to manage crises and legitimize borders so Europe stayed stable enough for conservative order. It unraveled because rising nationalism and liberal revolutions (e.g., 1848), the Ottoman “Eastern Question,” and competing national interests made cooperation harder: Britain grew more isolationist, Russia and Austria clashed over the Balkans, and French/German unification projects shifted the balance of power. Military conflicts like the Crimean War exposed the breakdown of trust and multilateral coordination. The breakdown opened space for Italian and German unification and new realpolitik diplomacy (Bismarck, Cavour), which you should connect to KC-3.4 on the exam (use causation and balance-of-power reasoning). See the Topic 7.9 study guide for review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the difference between Italian unification and German unification?
Italian and German unification were similar in nationalist goals but different in who led them, how they happened, and their effects. Italy’s Risorgimento (Cavour, Garibaldi) mixed popular uprisings (Garibaldi’s “red shirts”) with diplomatic state-building from Piedmont-Sardinia under Cavour—using limited wars, diplomacy, and appeals to nationalism to unify by 1861. German unification was driven from above by Prussia and Bismarck’s Realpolitik: economic integration via the Zollverein, three wars (including the decisive Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71), and careful diplomacy to create a powerful German Empire in 1871. Italy struggled with regional divisions and limited state capacity; unified Germany became the central upset to the European balance of power (KC-3.4). For AP review, focus on leaders (Cavour/Garibaldi vs. Bismarck), methods (liberal-nationalist vs. conservative Realpolitik), and outcomes (fragile Italian state vs. strong German Empire). See the Topic 7.9 study guide for details (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did the unification of Germany change the balance of power in Europe so much?
Because German unification (1871) turned dozens of weak, often competing German states into one huge, industrialized nation under Prussian leadership, it rewired Europe’s power map. Economically and industrially Germany became the continent’s leading producer (steel, coal, railroads), and politically/militarily it now had centralized leadership (Bismarck, Realpolitik) able to project power. That weakened Austria’s influence in Central Europe, alarmed France after the Franco-Prussian War (which produced Alsace-Lorraine), and ended the old Concert of Europe balance by creating a new heavyweight that other states had to reckon with. The result: shifting alliances, intensified imperial competition, and efforts to construct a new diplomatic order—all core KC-3.4 and KC-3.5 themes on the AP (see the Unit 7 CED). For more focused review, check the Topic 7.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Can someone explain how the Second Industrial Revolution helped Europeans control their empires?
The Second Industrial Revolution made European imperial control easier by providing faster transport, better communication, and new technologies that backed New Imperialism. Railways and steamships let troops, administrators, and goods move across colonies quickly; the telegraph linked colonial officials to European governments in hours, improving coordination. New industrial products (steel, medical advances like quinine) supported infrastructure and helped Europeans settle and govern tropical regions. Industrial capital and machine-made goods created economic motives for colonies (raw materials + markets), while ideas like Social Darwinism gave ideological justification. These developments fed the Scramble for Africa and diplomatic moves like the Berlin Conference. For AP work, connect cause-and-effect: show how tech (cause) increased European control and global tensions (effects)—a solid strategy for LEQ/DBQ prompts. See the Topic 7.9 study guide for targeted review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the main causes of the revolutions of 1848 and why did they fail?
The 1848 revolutions were driven by a mix of liberal, national, social, and economic causes: demands for constitutions, expanded male suffrage, press freedom, and labor relief after industrial dislocation; rising nationalist movements (Italian, German, Hungarian) wanting unification or autonomy; food shortages and economic downturns. They failed because revolutionary forces were fragmented (liberals, radicals, workers, nationalists had different goals), lacked unified leadership and coherent programs, and faced well-organized conservative states (monarchies, armies, and police) that reasserted order. Important factors: fear of social revolution pushed moderate liberals to side with conservatives; Metternich-style diplomacy and military force; and limited international support. For AP exam work, use causation and context: tie specific examples (e.g., Frankfurt Assembly, Hungarian uprising, French February Revolution) to evidence in a DBQ/LEQ and explain short-term vs. long-term effects (KC-3.4, KC-3.6). Review the Topic 7.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to build strong evidence-based essays.
I'm confused about how nationalism led to both unification and instability at the same time
Nationalism pushed both unification and instability because it was a powerful idea that different actors used for different goals. For unification: shared language, history, and culture gave Italians and Germans a basis for political unity; leaders like Cavour, Garibaldi, and Bismarck used nationalism and Realpolitik to weld states into Italy (Risorgimento) and Germany (Franco-Prussian War, 1870–71). For instability: nationalism threatened multiethnic empires (Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman), encouraged irredentism and minority demands, and shifted the balance of power—making diplomacy harder and raising tensions among Great Powers (KC-3.4, KC-3.5). On the AP exam, use causation and continuity/ change reasoning to show how the same force produced both outcomes over time (use examples and link to consequences). For a concise review, see the Topic 7.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv). Practice applying this in DBQs/LEQs with problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What is realism and materialism and how did they replace romanticism after 1848?
Realism and materialism: Realism was an artistic/intellectual movement that focused on everyday life, social problems, and objective observation rather than emotional idealization. Materialism (in 19th-century thought) argued that material conditions—economics, class, industry—shape society and ideas (think Marx’s critique). After the failed Revolutions of 1848, Europeans grew tired of romantic ideals of heroic individual change and turned toward scientific, pragmatic explanations for social problems. Governments and thinkers favored Realpolitik, empirical science, and economic explanations (industrialization, urban poverty), so literature, art, and politics shifted to portray social realities and class-based causation. This ties to KC-3.6.II: the post-1848 turn to a realist/materialist worldview that influenced nationalism, imperialism, and social reform. For AP prep, you may see this in short-answer or LEQ/DBQ prompts about cultural/intellectual change—review Topic 7.9 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about the effects of nationalism on European diplomacy?
Start with a clear thesis that links nationalism to changes in diplomacy (e.g., nationalism weakened the Concert of Europe and forced powers to reframe diplomacy around unification and balance-of-power shifts). In your intro also contextualize: post-1815 Concert, 1848 revolutions, Risorgimento, and German unification under Bismarck/Realpolitik. For evidence: use at least four documents to support your line of reasoning and bring in one specific outside fact (Franco-Prussian War/1870–71 or Bismarck creating the North German Confederation). Source two documents (explain authors’ POV, purpose, or audience—e.g., Cavour’s speeches vs. Bismarck’s dispatches) to earn sourcing points. Organize body paragraphs by causal links: how nationalism prompted diplomatic realignments (Italian/German unification), imperial competition (Berlin Conference), and new alliance systems. Wrap up with a complexity point—show nationalism had mixed effects (destabilized Europe but also produced predictable state systems). For more topic scaffolding, see the Unit 7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv) and practice DBQs at Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Did imperialism actually make European countries more powerful or just create more conflicts?
Short answer: both. In the short term 19th-century imperialism (New Imperialism, fueled by the Second Industrial Revolution) increased European states’ economic power—raw materials, new markets, strategic naval bases, and prestige—which helped build bigger militaries and richer treasuries. But it also raised international tensions: the Scramble for Africa, rival colonial claims, Social Darwinist justifications, and contests over the balance of power produced crises (e.g., Berlin Conference outcomes, colonial wars) that heightened competition among the Great Powers. So imperialism strengthened states materially but made the international system less stable—a key causal link AP Euro wants you to explain (Unit 7 LO K; see Topic 7.9). For exam prep, practice writing short causal chains for DBQs/LEQs and use this Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv) and Unit 7 resources (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7) plus practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What caused European countries to start competing so much for colonies in the late 1800s?
Mostly a mix of economics, technology, and nationalism. Industrial-era states needed raw materials and new markets after the Second Industrial Revolution, so colonies became valuable sources of coal, rubber, and buyers for manufactured goods (KC-3.5.II). New transport, medicine (quinine), and weapons made overseas control more feasible. National prestige and rivalry—especially after German unification—meant colonies were symbols of power that shifted the European balance of power (KC-3.4, KC-3.5). Ideologies like Social Darwinism and “civilizing” rhetoric gave a cultural justification for expansion, while strategic needs (coaling stations, naval bases) and international diplomacy (Berlin Conference) turned informal influence into formal empires. For AP prep, connect these causes when you explain causation and stability in Unit 7—use the Topic 7.9 study guide for focused review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv). More practice problems are at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did technological advances like railroads and telegraphs help Europeans control their empires?
Railroads and telegraphs made European empires easier to control by shrinking time and distance—key causal links in New Imperialism (KC-3.5.II). Railways moved troops, administrators, and goods across colonies much faster, letting governments respond quickly to unrest, enforce policies, and integrate colonial economies into imperial markets. Telegraph lines gave metropolitan officials near-instant communication with distant governors, so orders, intelligence, and resource flows were coordinated in real time. Together they boosted resource extraction, sped up infrastructure projects, and helped map and claim territory during the Scramble for Africa (Berlin Conference era). For AP writing, emphasize causation: technological change → administrative/military/ economic capacity → intensified European global control and diplomatic tension. For a quick review, see the Topic 7.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv) and try related practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did the balance of power system work before German unification but not after?
Before German unification the Concert of Europe (Congress of Vienna framework) kept a multipolar balance: Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia checked one another, supported conservative order, and could coop to contain crises. German states were fragmented, so no single German power could shift the balance. After unification (1871) a new, industrialized German Empire under Bismarck changed that—Germany became the strongest continental power economically, militarily, and diplomatically. That concentration of power made the old checks ineffective, encouraged rival alliance systems, and increased tensions over colonies and trade (KC-3.4, KC-3.5). For AP exam work, link this to causation: unification transformed the balance of power and helped produce new diplomatic orders and conflicts (see Topic 7.9 study guide) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv). For unit review and practice problems, check the Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7) and AP practice sets (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I missed class - what's the connection between industrial development and imperial expansion?
Short version: industrial development drove imperial expansion because Europe’s factories needed raw materials, new markets, capital outlets, and secure trade routes—and technology made overseas control easier. After the Second Industrial Revolution, Europe had steamships, railways, telegraphs, repeating rifles, and quinine for tropical disease; these let states project power, administer colonies, and move goods fast. Economic motives (cotton, rubber, coal), political competition tied to nationalism and the changing balance of power, and ideological justifications like Social Darwinism all pushed the “New Imperialism” and the Scramble for Africa (see Berlin Conference). On the AP exam you’ll see this as a causation/continuity question—use tech + economic + ideological causes, and link to diplomatic tensions (e.g., balance of power) in DBQs or LEQs. Review Topic 7.9 on Fiveable (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv), the Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the long-term consequences of Italian and German unification for European stability?
Italian and German unification (mid–late 19th c.) reshaped European stability by altering the balance of power and increasing great-power rivalry. A unified Germany (Bismarck, Realpolitik) became the continent’s strongest industrial and military state after 1871; a unified Italy was weaker but raised nationalist pressures (Risorgimento). These unifications ended the old Concert of Europe equilibrium (CED KC-3.4), encouraged new alliances, and helped trigger the Franco-Prussian War and later diplomatic realignments. Short term: more decisive diplomacy and wars to settle status. Long term: intensified competition for colonies (New Imperialism, KC-3.5) and ideological conflicts (Kulturkampf, Social Darwinism) that made a stable, cooperative order harder to maintain. For AP essays, link these developments to balance-of-power change and imperial tensions as causes—use examples like Bismarck’s system and the Berlin Conference for evidence. For a quick review, see the Topic 7.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/causation-19th-century-perspectives-political-developments/study-guide/9oS7EfNeHr0AhsHMbUZv), unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7), and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).