Philosophical Approaches and Intellectual Movements
The Enlightenment Legacy
Before delving into the intellectual movements of the 19th century, it is important to consider the Enlightenment as the intellectual foundation that influenced subsequent thought. The Enlightenment emphasized reason, rationality, and scientific inquiry, championing the idea that human progress could be achieved through the application of knowledge and science.
- Key Figures: Thinkers like John Locke, Voltaire, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau pushed for political, social, and intellectual reform based on reason and natural law.
- Impact: The Enlightenment laid the groundwork for the French Revolution and the rise of liberalism and secularism in Europe, challenging the authority of traditional institutions like the monarchy and the Church.
Romanticism and its Reaction Against the Enlightenment
In reaction to the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason, Romanticism emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature. Romantic thinkers and artists rejected the rational, structured worldview of the Enlightenment in favor of personal expression and the sublime.
- Key Themes: Nature, emotion, and the irrational were central to Romanticism, as exemplified in the works of poets like William Wordsworth and Lord Byron, and artists like Eugène Delacroix.
- Philosophical Impact: Romanticism also influenced political thought, especially in terms of nationalism and the idealization of the folk and common people as sources of national identity.
Positivism and Scientific Developments
Positivism: The Science of Society
The early 19th century saw the rise of Positivism, a philosophy that emphasized empirical observation and scientific reasoning as the sole legitimate sources of knowledge. Auguste Comte, one of the leading figures of Positivism, argued that human society and its institutions could be understood and improved through scientific methods, much like the natural world.
- Key Concepts:
- Scientific Analysis of Society: Positivism applied the scientific method to social phenomena, aiming to understand and solve societal problems through data and observation.
- Rejection of Metaphysics: Positivists rejected abstract reasoning, such as theological and philosophical speculation, focusing instead on observable facts and laws.
Darwinism and Its Impact on Science and Society
Charles Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection, outlined in On the Origin of Species (1859), dramatically changed both biological science and intellectual thought by explaining the process of evolution through natural selection, where the fittest individuals survive and reproduce.
- Key Ideas:
- Evolution: Species evolve over time through the accumulation of favorable traits that enhance survival.
- Natural Selection: Organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on those traits to future generations.
While Darwin’s work focused on the natural world, it had far-reaching implications for human society, leading to the misapplication of his ideas into Social Darwinism*—a theory that applied Darwin’s principles to justify social inequalities and imperialism.*
The Rise of Realism and Naturalism
Realism: Depicting the Harsh Realities of Life
Realism was an intellectual and artistic movement that emerged as a reaction against Romanticism. Realist thinkers and artists sought to portray life without embellishment or idealization, often focusing on the difficult and uncomfortable realities of modern society.
- Key Features:
- Focused on everyday life, including the struggles of the working class and the harshness of industrialization.
- Critiqued the romanticized views of life in earlier movements.
- Impact:
- In art and literature, Realism addressed issues such as poverty, industrial labor, and social inequality.
- Emile Zola, a French novelist, became one of the most prominent figures in Realism, using his work to expose the social problems of his time.
Naturalism: A Scientific Approach to Human Life
Building on Realism, Naturalism took a more scientific approach to human life, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and the influence of environment and heredity on human behavior. Naturalists were influenced by the scientific advances of the time and rejected romanticized depictions of life.
- Key Features:
- Focus on the scientific analysis of human life.
- Examined how environment, heredity, and social conditions shape human behavior.
- Rejected the idealization of human life, seeking instead to reveal the raw truths about society.
- Impact:
- Naturalism contributed to the critique of societal structures and illuminated the struggles of the lower classes.
- Émile Zola and other writers used Naturalism to address social ills like alcoholism, labor exploitation, and political corruption.
The Shift to Modernism: Relativism and the Rejection of Objective Knowledge
In the late 19th century, a shift occurred in intellectual life from the optimistic, rational worldview of earlier centuries to one of relativism, uncertainty, and modernism. Modernist thinkers questioned the idea that knowledge could be objective, and they embraced the subjective and the irrational in human experience.
Modernism in Philosophy and Culture
Modernism emerged as a reaction against the certainties of previous intellectual traditions. It emphasized innovation, experimentation, and self-consciousness. Modernists rejected traditional artistic forms and values, seeking new ways of expressing human experience.
- Key Figures:
- Friedrich Nietzsche: A German philosopher who argued that traditional rationality suppressed human creativity and instincts. Nietzsche famously declared, “God is dead,” challenging the moral and metaphysical foundations of society.
- Emphasis on Irrationality: Nietzsche believed that embracing the irrational aspects of human existence—such as emotion, intensity, and struggle—was essential for personal and societal growth.
Freud’s Psychoanalysis: The Unconscious Mind
Sigmund Freud revolutionized psychology with his theory of the unconscious mind and psychoanalysis, which focused on the conflict between the conscious and subconscious mind.
- Key Ideas:
- The Unconscious Mind: Freud suggested that much of human behavior is driven by unconscious desires and impulses, often rooted in early childhood experiences.
- Psychic Conflict: Freud emphasized the role of inner conflicts in human psychology, particularly between repressed desires and social norms, which could lead to neuroses or other psychological issues.
Freud’s theories fundamentally changed the understanding of human behavior, shifting away from rational explanations to a more nuanced understanding of human impulses and the subconscious mind.
Developments in the Natural Sciences
Einstein and Quantum Mechanics: Challenging Newtonian Physics
The late 19th and early 20th centuries brought major advancements in the natural sciences, which challenged long-standing assumptions about the physical world.
- Einstein’s Theory of Relativity (1905): Albert Einstein’s Theory of Relativity fundamentally altered the understanding of time, space, and gravity. His theory showed that time and space were not fixed, as Newton had proposed, but were relative to the observer’s frame of reference.
- Quantum Mechanics: Max Planck and Niels Bohr developed quantum mechanics, which introduced the concept of uncertainty at the subatomic level. The idea that particles could exist in multiple states simultaneously challenged the deterministic views of classical physics.
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Both of these developments undermined the Newtonian framework of absolute space and time, revealing the universe to be far more complex and uncertain than previously understood.
Comparison of Intellectual Movements: 19th Century Thought
| Movement/Period | Key Ideas | Impact on Society |
|---|---|---|
| Enlightenment | Reason, scientific progress, individual rights | Laid the foundation for liberal thought, political reforms, and revolutions. |
| Romanticism | Emotion, individualism, nature | Rejected Enlightenment rationality, contributed to nationalism and a focus on personal expression. |
| Realism | Everyday life, social problems, industrialization | Depicted harsh societal realities, especially poverty and inequality. |
| Naturalism | Scientific analysis, environmental influence, heredity | Focused on the social and biological forces shaping human behavior, critiqued societal structures. |
| Positivism | Empiricism, scientific method | Emphasized scientific study of society, laid the groundwork for the social sciences. |
| Modernism | Relativism, individual experience, irrationality | Challenged traditional values, emphasized subjective experiences and irrationality. |
Conclusion
The intellectual developments from 1815 to 1914 marked a period of profound change, moving from the rationalist foundations of the Enlightenment to the more subjective and experimental ideas of Modernism. Realism and Naturalism emerged as powerful critiques of society, focusing on the struggles of the lower classes and the impact of environment and heredity on human life. Meanwhile, Positivism and the scientific revolution changed the way we understood both society and the natural world, setting the stage for the intellectual currents of the 20th century.
🎥 Watch: AP European History - 19th Century -isms
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Freudian psychology | A psychological theory developed by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the role of the irrational mind and the conflict between conscious and subconscious drives in human behavior. |
| modernism | An intellectual and cultural movement in the late 19th century characterized by rejection of objective knowledge and emphasis on relativism in values. |
| Newtonian physics | The classical physics framework developed by Isaac Newton based on the assumption of objective, deterministic laws governing nature. |
| positivism | A philosophical approach that emphasizes science as the only valid source of knowledge, relying on rational and scientific analysis of nature and human affairs. |
| quantum mechanics | A branch of physics developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that challenged Newtonian physics by describing the behavior of matter and energy at atomic scales. |
| relativism | A philosophical position that rejects absolute truths and objective knowledge, emphasizing that values and understanding are relative or subjective. |
| theory of relativity | Einstein's revolutionary theory that challenged Newtonian physics by proposing that space, time, and motion are relative to the observer's frame of reference. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is positivism and why did people think science was the only way to get knowledge?
Positivism is the 19th-century philosophy (named with Auguste Comte) that only empirical, scientific methods produce true knowledge—so observable facts, measurement, and laws count; metaphysics or religion don’t. People trusted science because the Industrial Revolution and breakthroughs (Newtonian mechanics, later advances) produced clear, useful results: railways, vaccines, chemistry—so many thought the same methods could explain society, politics, and history (Comte even proposed a “social physics”). Positivism fit the era’s faith in progress and rational reform, and it appears in the CED as KC-3.6.II.A. Later in the century, critiques (Nietzsche, Freud, Planck/Einstein) showed limits of that confidence and led to modernism and relativism (KC-3.6.III). For the AP exam, you might see positivism used as evidence in an LEQ/SAQ about 19th-century intellectual change—use the topic study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn) and unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did science and philosophy change between 1815 and 1914?
Between 1815 and 1914, intellectual life moved from faith in science-as-progress to a far more uneasy modernism. Early 19th-century positivism (Auguste Comte) argued that only scientific, empirical knowledge mattered. By the late century that confidence weakened: natural science discovered limits to Newtonian certainty (Max Planck’s quantum hints; Einstein’s relativity soon after 1914), and philosophers and social thinkers emphasized irrational forces (Nietzsche, Bergson, Sorel) and social evolution (Social Darwinism, Durkheim). Freud’s psychoanalysis reframed human nature as driven by unconscious impulses, not pure reason. The result: a shift from objective-certainty claims to relativism and cultural modernism—exactly what the CED describes under Topic 7.5 (positivism → relativism/modernism; Freud; Planck/relativity). On the AP exam, you may be asked to “explain how” these changes developed (LE: Unit 7 F); practice linking specific thinkers/ discoveries to broader cultural shifts. For a focused review, see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn), Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7), and more practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did people start losing confidence in objective knowledge in the late 1800s?
By the late 1800s people lost confidence in objective knowledge because several big shifts showed that certainty wasn’t as solid as Enlightenment thinkers had claimed. Philosophy moved from positivism (science = truth) toward relativism and an emphasis on irrational forces (Nietzsche, Bergson, Sorel), which questioned simple, universal truths. Freud’s psychoanalysis argued behavior is driven by the unconscious, undermining the idea of fully rational subjects. In the natural sciences, Planck’s quantum ideas and then Einstein’s relativity toppled Newtonian physics as the single, objective description of nature. Together these intellectual and scientific developments produced modernism—a cultural turn toward doubt, multiple perspectives, and uncertainty. For AP Euro, this fits Topic 7.5 (KC-3.6.III) and can show up on SAQs/LEQs under “cultural and intellectual developments.” For review, see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the difference between positivism and modernism in intellectual thought?
Positivism (Auguste Comte) is the 19th-century belief that scientific, empirical methods are the only reliable source of knowledge—apply rational, observable study to nature and society. Modernism (late 19th c.) is a reaction: intellectuals lost confidence in objective knowledge and stressed relativism, the irrational, and subconscious drives. Think positivism = faith in progress through science; modernism = doubt about certainty (Nietzsche, Bergson, Sorel; Freud on the unconscious). Developments in physics (Planck, Einstein, quantum theory, relativity) and psychology helped shove culture from positivist confidence toward modernist uncertainty. For AP Euro, you should connect positivism to KC-3.6.II.A and modernism to KC-3.6.III (use examples like Comte vs. Freud/Einstein). These themes show up on multiple-choice, SAQs, and LEQs—so practice linking thinkers, scientific advances, and cultural shifts (see the Topic 7.5 study guide on Fiveable: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn and more practice questions at https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Can someone explain Freudian psychology in simple terms and why it was so revolutionary?
Freud in simple terms: he argued that much of human behavior comes from unconscious drives (id)—like sex and aggression—that clash with your conscious mind (ego) and internalized rules (superego). Psychological problems come from repressed memories and conflicts in the subconscious; therapy (psychoanalysis) tries to bring those hidden drives into awareness through talk, dreams, and free association. Why it was revolutionary: it challenged the Enlightenment idea that humans are mainly rational. Freud moved intellectual life toward the irrational and inner impulse—exactly the shift the CED links to modernism and a new account of human nature (conscious vs. subconscious) in Topic 7.5. That shook literature, art, politics, and later psychology by giving the unconscious a central role. For AP study: connect Freud to KC-3.6.III.B (psychoanalysis) and practice explaining how ideas undermined confidence in rational objectivity. For a quick review, see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn) and more practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I'm confused about how Einstein's theory of relativity undermined Newtonian physics - what actually happened?
Newtonian physics treated space, time, and gravity as fixed, absolute realities: clocks tick the same everywhere, lengths don’t change, and gravity is a force pulling masses together. Einstein’s special (1905) and general (1915) relativity changed that: special relativity showed space and time are linked (spacetime) and that measurements of time and length depend on an observer’s motion; nothing can travel faster than light. General relativity went further, describing gravity not as a force but as curvature of spacetime by mass and energy. That meant Newton’s laws are excellent approximations at everyday speeds and weak gravity, but they’re not the objective, universal description of nature—Einstein’s theory predicts phenomena (light bending, time dilation near massive bodies) Newtonian physics can’t. This shift fits KC-3.6.III.C: late-19th/early-20th-century science undermined Newtonian primacy and helped fuel modernist relativism. For a concise topical review, see the Age of Progress & Modernity study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn). For more unit review and practice, check Unit 7 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7) and AP practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Who were Friedrich Nietzsche and Georges Sorel and why did they emphasize irrationality?
Friedrich Nietzsche and Georges Sorel were late-19th-century thinkers who pushed back against Enlightenment faith in reason. Nietzsche (German philosopher) criticized traditional morality, arguing “will to power” and instinct—not pure rationality—drive human creativity and history. Sorel (French political thinker) praised myth and violent syndicalist strikes as mobilizing, irrational forces that inspire working-class action. Both emphasized irrationality because growing scientific relativism and social change made unified, purely rational explanations seem inadequate (KC-3.6.III in the CED). Their ideas fed modernism’s focus on impulse, conflict, and struggle as engines of progress (KC-3.6.III.A). For AP Euro, connect them to broader shifts: decline of positivism, rise of relativism, and intellectual moves toward emotion/instinct (ties to Freud and Bergson). For more review, see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What is quantum mechanics and how did it change the way people thought about science?
Quantum mechanics is the late-19th/early-20th-century branch of physics (started by Max Planck) that shows matter and energy behave in discrete “quanta” and follow probabilistic, not strictly determinable, laws. Instead of Newton’s clockwork universe, quantum theory says you can only predict probabilities (and measurement can affect what you observe). That undermined positivism’s confidence that science reveals an entirely objective reality and fed the CED’s note about a new relativism in values and knowledge—helping drive modernism and doubts about absolute truth. On the AP exam this shows up under Topic 7.5 as part of intellectual developments that changed 1815–1914 thinking; use it in essays or SAQs to show how science influenced cultural shifts away from strict rationalism. For a focused review, see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about the shift from rational to irrational thinking in the 19th century?
Start with a clear thesis that answers the prompt: e.g., “Intellectual life in the later 19th century shifted from Enlightenment positivism toward philosophies and sciences that emphasized relativism and the irrational, as thinkers like Nietzsche and Freud and scientists like Planck and Einstein undermined claims of objective, universal knowledge.” Contextualize briefly (post-1815 industrialization, scientific advances, loss of faith in progress). Use at least four documents to support your line of reasoning and one specific outside fact (Freud’s 1900 Interpretation of Dreams or Nietzsche’s critique of reason). For two documents explain sourcing (author’s POV, purpose, audience—e.g., Nietzsche as a cultural critic; a scientist’s paper aimed at peers). Organize paragraphs by theme: positivism → challenge from philosophy (Nietzsche, Bergson, Sorel) → psychoanalysis (Freud) → scientific revolutions (Planck/Einstein). Address counterarguments (continued faith in science, practical positivism). Aim to show complexity (multiple causes/effects, cultural impact). Use the Topic 7.5 study guide for examples and evidence (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn) and practice questions for DBQ prep (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did philosophers start believing that conflict and struggle led to progress?
Philosophers began seeing conflict and struggle as engines of progress because late-19th-century thought questioned steady rational progress (positivism) and highlighted instability in human nature and knowledge. Scientific shifts (quantum theory, relativity) undermined Newtonian certainty, while Social Darwinism and evolutionary ideas suggested competition shaped development. Thinkers like Nietzsche argued that tension (his “will to power”) spurs creativity and cultural renewal; Sorel praised the mobilizing power of myths and strikes to force change; Bergson celebrated creative evolution driven by impulse; Freud emphasized inner conflict between conscious and unconscious. Together these ideas produced a modernist view that struggle—social, psychological, intellectual—could produce renewal rather than mere decay (CED KC-3.6.III.A; philosophers listed in Topic 7.5). For more review, see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn) and unit resources (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7). Practice questions are at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the consequences of people losing faith in objective scientific knowledge?
When people lost faith in objective scientific knowledge in the late 19th century, several big consequences followed. Intellectually, positivism weakened and relativism grew—thinkers like Nietzsche and Bergson emphasized irrational drives and intuition, while Freud argued the subconscious shaped behavior (CED: KC-3.6.III, KC-3.6.III.B). In science, Planck and Einstein undermined Newtonian certainty (quantum mechanics, relativity), which fueled modernist skepticism about absolute truth (KC-3.6.III.C). Culturally this led to modernism in art and literature that stressed subjectivity and fragmentation. Politically and socially, appeals to “science” became less absolute—Social Darwinism still used scientific language for ideology, but critics questioned those claims. For the AP exam, use these specific people and developments as evidence in DBQs/LEQs (e.g., contrast positivism with Freud/Einstein). For a quick topic review check Fiveable’s Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did the conscious vs subconscious struggle that Freud talked about change how people viewed human nature?
Freud’s idea that much of behavior comes from an unconscious mind shifted Europeans from seeing humans as fully rational actors to seeing them as driven by hidden impulses, desires, and conflicts. That change fits the CED’s shift from Positivism to modernism: psychoanalysis (KC-3.6.III.B) emphasized irrationality and inner struggle, undermining the idea that science alone explained human action. People began to accept that emotions, childhood experiences, and subconscious drives shape politics, art, and daily life—which explains modernist literature, symbolism in art, and new therapies. For the AP exam, link Freud to the larger theme that late-19th-century thinkers challenged objective knowledge and highlighted irrational forces (KC-3.6.III). Want a concise review? Check the Topic 7.5 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to see how this shows up on prompts.
I missed class - what exactly is modernism and how is it connected to relativism in values?
Modernism: a late-19th/early-20th-century shift in arts, ideas, and science that questioned old certainties. Instead of confident, progressive narratives (like positivism—science = ultimate truth), modernists emphasized fragmentation, subjectivity, and the limits of reason. Think Nietzsche’s critique of universal moral truths, Freud’s focus on the unconscious, and scientific changes (Planck, Einstein) that showed Newtonian certainty was provisional (CED: KC-3.6.III, KC-3.6.III.A–C). How that connects to relativism in values: as people lost faith in single, objective foundations for knowledge, they also doubted universal moral rules. If truth and reality are less fixed, values look contingent—products of culture, psychology, or perspective—so artists and thinkers explored ambiguity, irony, and moral complexity (modernist literature, art, philosophy). For AP prep, you should link these CED ideas (positivism → loss of confidence → relativism → modernism) in short-answer and essay responses. Review Topic 7.5 on Fiveable (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn; unit overview: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What role did Max Planck play in undermining traditional Newtonian physics?
Max Planck started the scientific shift that showed Newtonian physics wasn’t the final, objective description of nature. In 1900 he introduced the quantum hypothesis to explain blackbody radiation: energy is emitted in discrete packets (quanta) with E = hν, not as a continuous flow. That idea contradicted Newtonian assumptions of smooth, deterministic energy and set the stage for quantum mechanics, which—along with Einstein’s relativity—created the CED-listed challenge to Newtonian primacy (KC-3.6.III.C). Planck didn’t overthrow Newton overnight, but his work showed limits to classical physics and opened the path to a new, more probabilistic view of nature. For AP review, this fits Topic 7.5’s focus on how late-19th/early-20th-century science undermined older certainties—see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) for examples.
How did all these changes in science and philosophy contribute to the belief that knowledge wasn't really objective anymore?
As science and philosophy changed in the late 1800s, people started to doubt that knowledge was a single, objective truth. Positivism had claimed science = truth, but new ideas pushed back: Freud showed the unconscious shapes beliefs and motives (so reason isn’t the whole story), Nietzsche and Bergson stressed irrational drives and intuition, and thinkers like Sorel argued myths and violence shape politics—all promoting relativism (CED KC-3.6.III). In the natural sciences, Planck’s work on quantum mechanics and Einstein’s relativity undercut Newtonian certainty: laws depended on observers and probabilities, not fixed absolutes (KC-3.6.III.C). Together these developments shifted intellectual life toward modernism and skepticism about objective truth. For a quick review of these CED topics, check the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-7/age-progress-modernity/study-guide/0OoJtCBrWjBvkjAdTQDn) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to prep for AP-style short-answer and essay connections.