How Did 18th-Century States Experience Change?
Between 1648 and 1815, European states underwent significant transformations in political sovereignty, social order, and cultural life. While monarchies and empires attempted to preserve tradition and hierarchy, they were increasingly challenged by Enlightenment ideals, revolutions, and war.
Despite attempts to maintain continuity, political legitimacy, and control, the French Revolution and Napoleon's reign fundamentally disrupted the European balance of power—spreading revolutionary concepts across the continent and inspiring both reform and reaction.
Political Sovereignty: From Divine Right to Popular Rule?
The French Revolution and Its Challenge to Authority
The French Revolution (1789–1799) radically disrupted the established social and political order of Europe. Centered on the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, the revolution directly challenged the divine right of kings, hereditary privilege, and absolutist governance.
- The revolution inspired demands for constitutionalism, the abolition of feudal privileges, and civic participation.
- Its influence spread beyond France, reaching colonial territories like Saint-Domingue, where formerly enslaved people led the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804), establishing the first Black republic.
But not everyone welcomed these changes:
⚖️ Edmund Burke, a British conservative thinker, strongly opposed the revolution, warning that the rapid destruction of traditional authority would lead to tyranny and chaos. His Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) became a foundational text of modern conservatism.
Monarchs across Europe shared Burke’s fears. The French Revolution sparked counter-revolutionary coalitions and deepened the divide between revolutionary liberalism and traditional monarchy.
Napoleon’s Reign: Reform and Authoritarianism
Napoleon Bonaparte rose from the chaos of the revolution to become First Consul and then Emperor of France. While claiming to preserve revolutionary ideals, his rule represented a blend of modernization and authoritarian control.
What Changed:
- The Napoleonic Code (1804) introduced a uniform legal system:
- Abolished feudalism and hereditary privilege
- Guaranteed property rights and civil liberties (for men)
- Ensured equality before the law
- Still influences many legal systems today
- Concordat of 1801 reconciled with the Catholic Church, restoring its place in French life under state control.
- New educational reforms and military academies strengthened the French state.
What Stayed the Same (or Got Worse):
- Napoleon imposed strict censorship and used a secret police to crush opposition.
- He crowned himself emperor, centralizing authority around his person.
- Women saw a rollback of rights under the Napoleonic Code.
Through the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), France spread legal, administrative, and nationalistic reforms across Europe—often against the will of local populations. These wars challenged dynastic empires and sowed the seeds of future revolutions.
The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815): A Conservative Restoration
Following Napoleon’s defeat, European powers convened at the Congress of Vienna to restore the old order.
Led by Austrian diplomat Prince Klemens von Metternich, the Congress sought to:
- Reinstate monarchical authority (e.g., Bourbon Restoration in France)
- Redraw European borders to balance power
- Suppress liberal and nationalist movements
Key Outcomes:
- Creation of the German Confederation (under Austrian dominance)
- Formation of the Holy Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia) to enforce conservative values
- Establishment of the Concert of Europe, a system of collective diplomacy to prevent future upheaval
⭐ Although the Congress of Vienna kept Europe relatively peaceful until 1848, its repression of nationalism and liberalism only delayed the inevitable. These suppressed forces would later explode during the Revolutions of 1848 and the unifications of Germany and Italy.
Culture and Philosophy: Romanticism as Reaction
While the Enlightenment prized logic, reason, and scientific advancement, the late 18th and early 19th centuries witnessed the rise of Romanticism: A reaction against Enlightenment rationalism and industrialization.
Rousseau and the Rise of Emotion
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a key intellectual precursor to Romanticism, argued that:
- Human beings were naturally good but corrupted by society
- Emotional experience was just as important as rational thought
- Education and politics should cultivate natural virtue, not suppress it
Romanticism extended Rousseau’s ideas into a broader cultural critique of modern society.
Romanticism vs. Enlightenment: A Shift in Values
| Enlightenment | Romanticism |
|---|---|
| Reason | Emotion |
| Order and logic | Nature and intuition |
| Urban, scientific, mechanical | Rural, mysterious, spiritual |
| Progress and human mastery | Tradition, imagination, awe of nature |
| Secularism | Religious revival and mysticism |
Romanticism emphasized individual feeling, national identity, historical memory, and nature’s sublimity. It flourished in:
- Literature (Goethe, Shelley, Wordsworth)
- Art (Delacroix, Turner, Goya)
- Religion (Methodism and personal faith movements)
Nationalism and Identity
Romanticism also helped nurture nationalism by emphasizing:
- Folk traditions, songs, and myths
- Shared languages and collective histories
- A “people’s spirit” (Volksgeist) unique to each nation
This cultural nationalism laid the ideological groundwork for future movements like Italian and German unification, and revolts in Eastern Europe.
Conclusion: Continuity and Change in the 18th Century
The period from 1648 to 1815 saw both continuity and dramatic change.
- Continuities included the persistence of monarchies, religious institutions, and class hierarchies, especially in Eastern Europe and under Metternich’s system.
- Changes emerged through revolutions, legal reform, philosophical shifts, and cultural transformation.
By the early 19th century, the Enlightenment’s rationalism had been both institutionalized (in legal codes and bureaucracies) and challenged by the rise of Romanticism, nationalism, and conservatism.
Even as Europe tried to return to the old order, the ideas unleashed by the French Revolution could not be contained. They would define the next century of European history.
🎥 Watch: AP Europe - French Revolution & Neoclassical Art
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| commercial rivalries | Competition among European states for trade, resources, and economic dominance that influenced diplomatic and military conflicts. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| French Revolution | A period of radical social and political upheaval in France (1789-1799) that fundamentally transformed French society and had lasting effects across Europe. |
| mass politics | Political movements and activities involving large numbers of ordinary people rather than just elites, often driven by emotional appeals and nationalist sentiment. |
| Napoleon Bonaparte | French military leader who seized power during the French Revolution and imposed French control over much of continental Europe before his eventual defeat. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| political order | The system of government, institutions, and power structures that organize a state and determine how authority is exercised. |
| political sovereignty | The supreme power and authority of a state to govern itself and make independent decisions without external interference. |
| reason | Rational thought and logical analysis, which Enlightenment thinkers prioritized but Romantic thinkers questioned. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What exactly is political sovereignty and why does it matter in the 18th century?
Political sovereignty = the ultimate authority to make and enforce laws for a people or territory. In the 18th century it mattered because competing ideas changed who held that authority: traditional absolutist monarchs claimed sovereign power (divine right), enlightened absoluts (Frederick, Catherine, Joseph II) tried to centralize and “rationalize” state power, while Enlightenment thinkers and the French Revolution shifted legitimacy toward the people (popular sovereignty). That shift sparked crises: claims about who was sovereign drove diplomacy, war, revolutions, Napoleon’s reshaping of Europe, and the nationalistic reaction after 1815 (KC-2.1, LO J). On the AP exam you’ll be expected to explain how these changes affected state-individual and inter-state relations (use evidence like the Declaration of the Rights of Man, Napoleonic reforms, Congress of Vienna). For a focused review, see the Topic 5.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT) and Unit 5 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5). Practice questions: (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did the French Revolution actually challenge Europe's political order?
The French Revolution attacked Europe’s political order by rejecting the divine-right, hereditary monarchy and claiming popular sovereignty—that political authority comes from the people (see Declaration of the Rights of Man). It abolished feudal privileges, challenged the Ancien Régime, and promoted legal equality (later codified in the Napoleonic Code). Revolutionary wars and Napoleon spread these ideas and reorganized states, provoking nationalist reactions and undermining the old balance of power. European rulers responded with the Concert of Europe and the Congress of Vienna (1815) to restore stability, but they couldn’t fully erase liberal and national demands—so the Revolution reshaped sovereignty, inspired 19th-century liberal and nationalist revolts, and became a frequent LEQ/DBQ theme on the AP exam. For a targeted review, check the Topic 5.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT) and practice AP-style questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the difference between the old political system and what the French Revolution created?
Old system (Ancien Régime): hierarchical, privileged orders ruled by monarchy and aristocracy; political power rested in the king, nobles, clergy, and institutions like parlements. Society was legally unequal (estates), taxation was uneven, and sovereignty was essentially dynastic/absolutist. What the French Revolution created: sovereignty shifted toward the nation and popular sovereignty—people (not just a king) became the source of political legitimacy. Institutions like the Estates-General gave way to the National Assembly, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen enshrined individual rights and legal equality, and later reforms (e.g., Napoleonic Code) standardized secular civil law. The revolution also sparked mass politics (Jacobins, sans-culottes), challenged aristocratic privilege, and spread nationalist and revolutionary models across Europe (continuity/change theme on the AP). For AP review, study this topic’s key terms and how revolution caused political change vs. continuities (see the Topic 5.9 study guide) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT). For practice, use Fiveable’s practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did Napoleon claim he was defending the French Revolution when he basically became a dictator?
Napoleon framed himself as defending the French Revolution because he preserved and spread key revolutionary changes while restoring order after years of chaos. He kept legal equality (abolishing feudal privileges), protected property and bourgeois gains, created the Napoleonic Code, built a centralized bureaucracy and merit-based administration, and signed the Concordat to stabilize church-state relations. Those moves matched revolutionary ideals even as he concentrated power in his own hands and used plebiscites to legitimize his rule. Why the contradiction? After the Terror and political instability, many wanted stability more than pure democracy. Napoleon argued a strong executive was necessary to secure the Revolution’s achievements and export them across Europe (KC-2.1.V). For AP review, link this to Topic 5.9 and Unit 5 (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT). For practice DBQ/LEQ prep on this theme, use Fiveable practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Can someone explain how commercial rivalries led to actual wars between European countries?
Commercial rivalries turned into wars because states linked wealth, security, and power to controlling trade routes, colonies, and markets. Under mercantilism, nations sought a favorable balance of trade and colonies as sources of bullion and raw materials. That produced competing colonial claims, naval buildups, and fights over ports (e.g., Anglo-Dutch naval wars, colonial clashes that fed into the Seven Years’ War). Rivals used diplomacy and alliances to protect trade interests—so a local commercial dispute could trigger a wider conflict when great-power alliances and the balance-of-power logic came into play. For AP essays/SAQs, use causation: show how mercantilist policy → colonial competition → naval conflict → wider war, and give specific examples. For more quick examples and review tied to Topic 5.9, see Fiveable’s study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to prep evidence for exam prompts.
I'm confused about how the Enlightenment and emotions/feelings were opposing each other - weren't they both happening at the same time?
They weren’t opposite in time but in emphasis. The Enlightenment (reason, natural rights, reform-minded philosophes) pushed ideas like legal equality and rational government (think Locke, Montesquieu). At the same time a cultural reaction emphasized feeling—“sensibility” in literature, early Romanticism in art and music, and political passion in mass movements. So you get overlap: some thinkers (Rousseau) fused reason with emotion; others used emotion as critique of cold rationalism. The CED even notes Enlightenment values were “challenged by the revival of public expression of emotions” and that revolution and nationalism showed the emotional power of mass politics (KC-2.3.VI and KC-2.3.VI.D). For AP essays/LEQs/DBQs, use this contrast to show continuity/change—explain how intellectual ideals persisted while cultural/political life grew more emotional. For review, check the Topic 5.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What caused the French Revolution to start in 1789?
Short answer: a mix of long-term structural problems and immediate crises. Long-term causes included Enlightenment ideas challenging the Ancien Régime (calls for rights and popular sovereignty), an entrenched social order (First/Second/Third Estates) that left the bourgeoisie and peasants politically marginalized, and economic shifts from expanding commerce that raised expectations. Immediate triggers in 1787–89 were fiscal collapse from costly wars and royal deficit, failed tax reforms, a poor 1788 harvest that raised bread prices, and Louis XVI’s decision to call the Estates-General (last met 1614). That meeting let the Third Estate claim national representation, form the National Assembly, and push for reform—turning crisis into revolution. For AP practice, use the Topic 5.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT) and Unit 5 review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5). For practice DBQ/LEQ prep, try Fiveable’s practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How did Napoleon's conquests create nationalism in other European countries?
Napoleon spread French rule, laws (like the Napoleonic Code), and administrative reforms across Europe—and that actually helped spark nationalism. When he imposed French institutions, local elites and common people saw centralized bureaucracy, legal equality, and national symbols that contrasted with old dynastic or feudal loyalties. Resistance to French control (and policies like the Continental System) made people define themselves against France, promoting shared language, culture, and political goals. In places like Germany, Spain, and Italy, elites and popular movements began imagining a common nation rather than loyalty to princes. This fits the CED: Napoleon’s rule “imposed French control…which eventually provoked a nationalistic reaction” (KC-2.1.IV/V). For AP prep, tie this to causes-and-effects in essays or short answers and use the Unit 5 study guide for review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT). Practice related questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What's the connection between the Scientific Revolution and political changes in the 18th century?
The Scientific Revolution shifted how Europeans valued reason, observation, and natural laws—and that change carried into politics in the 18th century. Thinkers applied scientific methods to society: Enlightenment philosophes argued for natural rights, social contracts, and limits on arbitrary authority. Those ideas undercut the theological and traditional justifications for the ancien régime and encouraged demands for legal equality (e.g., Declaration of the Rights of Man). Rulers responded two ways: some resisted, while others adopted “enlightened absolutism” (Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, Joseph II) using reforms—legal codification, religious toleration, administrative centralization—while keeping strong state control. For AP Euro, connect this as causation and continuity/change (Unit 5 KC-2.3 and KC-2.1): show how scientific reasoning fostered Enlightenment critiques that helped spark political reform and revolution. For more review, see the Topic 5.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT), the Unit 5 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
Why did European states keep fighting each other over trade and commerce?
Because trade = wealth and wealth = power, European states kept competing over commerce. Mercantilist ideas (state-managed exports, bullion hoarding) made colonies, trade routes, and tariffs national strategic priorities. Commercial rivalries (KC-2.2.III) shaped diplomacy and led states to use war to secure markets, colonies, or favorable trade terms—think Anglo-Dutch wars, the War of Spanish Succession, and the Seven Years’ War. Rulers framed conflicts as protecting honor or religion, but economic stakes were central: navies, tariffs, and colonial possessions directly affected state revenue and military capacity. For AP work, link this causation to political sovereignty and state-building (KC-2.1, Unit 5). Want to review examples and exam-style questions? Check the Topic 5.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT) and practice 1,000+ problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about continuity and change in 18th century political systems?
Start with a clear thesis that directly answers the prompt about continuity and change (one sentence in intro or conclusion)—e.g., “Eighteenth-century political systems showed continuity in monarchical authority but changed through Enlightened absolutism and revolutionary challenges.” Contextualize briefly: situate 18th-century absolutism, Enlightenment critiques, the French Revolution and Napoleonic reforms (Estates-General → National Assembly; Napoleonic Code). During the 15-minute read, tag documents you’ll use and plan paragraph topics (continuities, changes, causes, consequences). Use at least four documents to support your argument and one specific outside fact (e.g., Joseph II’s reforms, Frederick the Great, or the Congress of Vienna). For two documents, explain sourcing (author’s POV, purpose, audience or historical situation). Show complexity—compare enlightened absolutism (Catherine, Frederick, Joseph) with revolutionary rupture (Jacobins, Napoleonic legal/political changes) and note continuities (state bureaucracy, monarchy surviving in modified form). Practice DBQs and topic review are in the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT) and Unit 5 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5). For more timed practice, use Fiveable practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What were the long-term effects of the French Revolution on the rest of Europe?
The French Revolution’s long-term effects reshaped Europe politically, legally, and culturally. It discredited the Ancien Régime’s divine-right legitimacy and spread liberal ideas—national sovereignty, legal equality, and rights (Declaration of the Rights of Man). Napoleon exported reforms (Napoleonic Code, centralized administration, merit-based bureaucracy) that survived his fall and modernized many states. Europe reacted with conservative institutions (Congress of Vienna, Concert of Europe) trying to prevent more revolutions, but revolutionary and nationalist impulses kept returning: 1820, 1830, and especially 1848, plus 19th-century unification projects in Italy and Germany drew on revolutionary nationalism. Long-run results include expanded civic nationalism, gradual electoral reforms, secularization of law, and stronger centralized states. For the AP exam, use this causal chain and specific evidence (Napoleonic Code, Congress of Vienna, 1848 revolutions) in LEQs/DBQs to show continuity and change (CED KC-2.1 & KC-2.3). For a quick refresher, check the Topic 5.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT), the Unit 5 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
I missed class - what's the difference between how states worked before and after the French Revolution?
Before the French Revolution, most European states were ruled by the Ancien Régime: monarchs claimed sovereign authority (absolutism or enlightened absolutism), society was legally ordered by estates/privileges, and political participation was limited. After 1789 things changed: the Revolution and the Declaration of the Rights of Man promoted popular/national sovereignty, citizenship, legal equality, secular law (Napoleonic Code), and mass mobilization. Napoleon then spread administrative centralization, codified law, and nationalist ideas across Europe. Continuities: states stayed strong and bureaucratic—monarchies were restored at the Congress of Vienna (1815) but had to adapt to new political pressures; diplomacy and war still shaped borders. For the AP exam, expect prompts asking you to analyze continuity and change (LEQ/DBQ skills). Review Topic 5.9 on Fiveable (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT), the Unit 5 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history) to prep.
How did mass politics and nationalism become so powerful during this time period?
Mass politics and nationalism surged because the French Revolution shifted politics from elites to whole peoples. Revolutionary ideas (Declaration of the Rights of Man, popular sovereignty) mobilized urban crowds (sans-culottes), politicized language, and organized new mass parties (Jacobins) that used symbols, petitions, and violence to press demands. Napoleon then exported legal reforms (Napoleonic Code) and French control across Europe, which provoked popular reactions—people began linking language, culture, and opposition to foreign rule to a sense of nation. Emotional appeals (patriotism, fear, honor) made mass mobilization effective in war and politics, showing how passions + revolutionary rhetoric turned subjects into citizens. For AP Euro, focus on how the Revolution challenged the ancien régime (KC-2.1.IV/V) and how Napoleon produced nationalist backlashes (KC-2.1.V). For a quick review, see the Topic 5.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).
What role did reason vs emotion play in 18th century political changes?
In the 18th century reason and emotion both drove political change—often in sequence. Enlightenment thinkers pushed reason: ideas about natural rights, social contracts, and efficient state reform inspired enlightened absolutism (Frederick, Catherine, Joseph II) and challenged the Ancien Régime, feeding liberal constitutional arguments used in the French Revolution (Estates-General → National Assembly; Declaration of the Rights of Man). But emotion powered mass politics: popular grievances, revolutionary fervor, and the sans-culottes’ anger made radical change possible and violent phases like the Jacobin Terror (Robespierre). Afterward, Napoleonic rule exported legal rationalism (Napoleonic Code) while provoking nationalist emotional reactions across Europe that reshaped states. For AP essays, explain this interplay—use causation and continuity/change (CED KC-2.3 and KC-2.1)—and give specific examples (Enlightenment ideas vs. popular mobilization). For a quick review, see the Topic 5.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-european-history/unit-5/continuity-change-18th-century-states/study-guide/sYkAas7f3tbiZLHm1oaT) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-european-history).