| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| context | The historical circumstances, conditions, and factors that led to and shaped European exploration and contact with the Americas. |
| European encounters | The meetings and interactions between European explorers and the indigenous peoples of the Americas beginning in 1491. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Atlantic seaboard | The coastal region along the Atlantic Ocean in North America where Native American societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies. |
| Great Basin | An arid region in the western United States where Native American societies developed mobile lifestyles in response to environmental conditions. |
| Great Plains | Grassland regions in western North America where Native American societies adapted to aridity through largely mobile lifestyles. |
| hunting and gathering | An economic subsistence strategy based on hunting animals and collecting wild plants, practiced by societies in the Northwest and California. |
| irrigation | The artificial supply of water to land or crops, used by Southwest societies to support agriculture in arid environments. |
| maize cultivation | The practice of growing maize (corn) as a crop, which spread from Mexico northward and supported economic development and settlement in North American societies. |
| Mississippi River Valley | A region in North America where some Native American societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies and permanent settlements. |
| mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies | Economic systems that combined farming with hunting and gathering, developed by societies in the Northeast, Mississippi River Valley, and Atlantic seaboard regions. |
| mobile lifestyles | A way of life characterized by regular movement from place to place, adopted by societies in the Great Basin and western Great Plains in response to limited resources. |
| permanent villages | Settled communities where people lived year-round, supported by mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies in the Northeast and Mississippi River Valley. |
| settled communities | Permanent or semi-permanent human settlements, supported in some areas by abundant ocean resources in the Northwest and California regions. |
| social diversification | The development of different social classes, roles, and structures within a society, often resulting from increased economic productivity. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Christianity | The religious faith that European nations sought to spread to indigenous populations in the New World as a motivation for exploration and conquest. |
| conquest | The process of subjugating and taking control of territories and peoples, particularly European military campaigns in the New World. |
| economic competition | Rivalry among European nations to acquire resources, trade routes, and colonial territories for economic gain. |
| exploration | The act of traveling to and investigating unfamiliar territories, in this context referring to European voyages to the Americas. |
| military competition | Rivalry among European nations to establish military power and dominance through exploration and territorial conquest. |
| New World | European term for the Americas, including North and South America, newly encountered by Europeans during the Age of Exploration. |
| wealth | Valuable resources, precious metals, and economic riches that European nations sought to obtain from the New World. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| capitalism | An economic system based on private ownership, market competition, and the accumulation of capital for profit. |
| Columbian Exchange | The transfer of crops, animals, diseases, and ideas between Europe and the Americas following Columbus's 1492 voyage, which transformed both continents. |
| epidemics | Widespread outbreaks of disease, particularly Old World diseases like smallpox that devastated Native American populations lacking immunity. |
| feudalism | A medieval economic and social system based on land ownership and hierarchical relationships between lords and vassals. |
| joint-stock companies | Business enterprises in which multiple investors pooled capital and shared profits, used to finance exploration and trade ventures. |
| maritime technology | Innovations in ship design and navigation tools that improved European seafaring capabilities during the Age of Exploration. |
| native populations | The indigenous peoples of the Americas who inhabited the continents before European contact and colonization. |
| Spanish conquest | The military campaigns and colonization efforts by Spain in the Americas following 1492, resulting in the establishment of Spanish colonial control. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| caste system | A hierarchical social structure developed by the Spanish that categorized and defined the status of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in their empire. |
| encomienda system | A Spanish colonial labor system that granted colonists control over Native American workers to support agriculture and resource extraction. |
| enslaved Africans | Africans forcibly brought to Spanish colonial territories to labor in plantation agriculture and mining operations. |
| plantation-based agriculture | Large-scale agricultural production focused on cash crops, dependent on enslaved or coerced labor in Spanish colonial economies. |
| precious metals | Valuable mineral resources such as gold and silver that were extracted and exported from Spanish colonial territories. |
| social and economic structures | The organized systems of social hierarchy and economic organization that developed in Spanish colonial territories over time. |
| Spanish Empire | The territorial and political dominion established by Spain in North America and other regions during the colonial period. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cultural exchange | The adoption and adaptation of useful aspects of culture between Europeans and Native Americans over time. |
| diplomatic negotiations | Formal discussions and agreements between European and Native American leaders to resolve conflicts and establish terms of interaction. |
| economic prosperity | The material well-being and wealth that Native Americans sought to maintain and defend. |
| gender roles | Socially defined expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female in a particular society. |
| land use | Different approaches to utilizing and managing land, a key point of divergence between European and Native American perspectives. |
| military resistance | Armed opposition by Native Americans against European encroachment on their lands and demands for labor. |
| mutual misunderstandings | Failures in communication and comprehension between Europeans and Native Americans as each group attempted to interpret the other's actions and intentions. |
| political sovereignty | The right of Native American peoples to govern themselves and maintain independent political authority. |
| racial justifications | Arguments based on racial categories used by Europeans to justify the enslavement and subordination of Africans and Native Americans. |
| religion | Systems of faith and worship that shaped European and Native American societies and their interactions. |
| subjugation | The process of bringing Africans and Native Americans under European control and domination. |
| worldviews | Fundamental perspectives and beliefs about the world, including views on religion, gender roles, family structures, land use, and power. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Indians | The indigenous peoples of North America who had established societies, economies, and political systems before European contact. |
| Atlantic coast | The eastern coastal region of North America where early British colonies were established during the 17th century. |
| Atlantic slave trade | The transatlantic commercial system in which enslaved Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas to provide labor for colonial economies. |
| British colonies | Settlements established by Britain along the Atlantic coast of North America from the early 17th century onward. |
| British colonizers | European settlers and administrators from Britain who established colonies in North America with specific economic and political objectives. |
| colonization | The process of establishing settlements and political control over a territory and its indigenous populations. |
| colonization patterns | The different methods and approaches used by European powers to establish and organize settlements in North America based on their imperial goals and local conditions. |
| Dutch colonizers | European settlers and administrators from the Dutch Republic who established colonies in North America with specific economic and political objectives. |
| French colonizers | European settlers and administrators from France who established colonies in North America with specific economic and political objectives. |
| Great Britain | The European nation that established colonies in North America and engaged in political, social, cultural, and economic exchanges with its colonial settlements. |
| imperial goals | The political, economic, and territorial objectives that European powers sought to achieve through colonization in North America. |
| regional differences | Variations in environmental, economic, cultural, and demographic characteristics among British colonies along the Atlantic coast. |
| slavery | The institution of forced labor in which people were held as property and exploited for economic gain in the British colonies. |
| Spanish colonizers | European settlers and administrators from Spain who established colonies in North America with specific economic and political objectives. |
| transatlantic exchanges | Commercial, religious, philosophical, and political interactions and transfers between the British colonies and Great Britain. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agriculture | Farming and cultivation of land as the primary economic focus of English colonial settlements. |
| conversion to Christianity | The religious transformation of Native Americans to Catholic Christianity as a central goal of Spanish colonization. |
| English colonization | The establishment of English colonies in North America characterized by large-scale migration, agricultural settlement, and displacement of Native Americans. |
| enslaved Africans | Africans forcibly brought to Spanish colonial territories to labor in plantation agriculture and mining operations. |
| fur trade | The commercial exchange of animal furs between European colonists and American Indians, a primary economic focus of French and Dutch colonial efforts. |
| intermarriage | The practice of marriage between European colonists and American Indians, used by French and Dutch colonizers to build relationships and economic ties. |
| religious freedom | The ability to practice one's faith without persecution, a motivation for many European migrants to English colonies. |
| social mobility | The ability of individuals to move up or down in social and economic status within a society. |
| Spanish colonial society | The hierarchical social structure in Spanish colonies that incorporated Native Americans, Africans, and Europeans into a system based on subjugation and conversion to Christianity. |
| subjugating native populations | The Spanish practice of conquering and controlling American Indian peoples to extract wealth and labor from colonial territories. |
| trade alliances | Economic and diplomatic partnerships formed between French and Dutch colonists and American Indian nations to facilitate the exchange of goods like furs. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| British West Indies | British colonies in the Caribbean that developed plantation economies based on staple crop production and enslaved African labor. |
| cereal crops | Grain crops such as wheat and corn exported by the middle colonies as staple products. |
| Chesapeake colonies | British colonies in the Chesapeake region that developed prosperous economies based on tobacco cultivation using indentured servants and enslaved labor. |
| colonial legislatures | Elected assemblies in the colonies that exercised governmental authority and were unusually democratic for the era. |
| cultural and religious autonomy | The ability of enslaved Africans to develop and maintain their own cultural practices and religious traditions despite enslavement. |
| elite planters | Wealthy landowners in southern colonies who exercised local authority and dominated elected colonial assemblies. |
| enslaved Africans | Africans forcibly brought to Spanish colonial territories to labor in plantation agriculture and mining operations. |
| indentured servants | Laborers who agreed to work for a set period in exchange for passage to the colonies, initially used extensively in the Chesapeake region. |
| middle colonies | British colonies that supported economies based on cereal crop exports and attracted diverse European migrants with greater cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity. |
| mixed economy | An economic system combining agriculture and commerce, characteristic of the New England colonies. |
| New England colonies | British colonies in New England settled primarily by Puritans, characterized by small towns, family farms, and mixed economies of agriculture and commerce. |
| plantation economy | An economic system based on large-scale cultivation of staple crops for export, dependent on enslaved African labor, characteristic of southern colonies and the British West Indies. |
| Puritans | Religious group that initially settled the New England colonies seeking to establish communities based on their religious principles. |
| self-governing institutions | Colonial political bodies that exercised local authority with minimal British interference, including town meetings and elected assemblies. |
| staple crops | Primary export crops grown in colonies for commercial profit, such as tobacco, rice, and indigo. |
| tobacco | A labor-intensive cash crop exported by the Chesapeake and North Carolina colonies as a primary source of wealth. |
| town meetings | Participatory assemblies in New England colonies where colonists gathered to make decisions and elect representatives to colonial legislatures. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Atlantic economy | An interconnected economic system in which goods, enslaved Africans, and American Indians were exchanged between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. |
| colonial economies | Economic systems in European colonies focused on acquiring, producing, and exporting valuable commodities and exploiting labor sources. |
| commodities | Raw materials or goods produced in the colonies that were valued in Europe and exported for profit. |
| demographic shifts | Significant changes in the size, composition, and distribution of American Indian populations caused by disease and other factors. |
| epidemic diseases | Infectious diseases introduced by Europeans to American Indian populations, causing widespread death and demographic collapse. |
| mercantilism | An economic policy pursued by European nations, including Britain, to accumulate wealth and power through controlling trade and acquiring colonies. |
| sources of labor | The enslaved Africans and American Indians exploited by European colonizers to produce commodities and generate wealth. |
| trade networks | Established routes and connections through which goods and people were exchanged across the Atlantic between continents. |
| transatlantic trade | The exchange of goods, people, and resources between Europe, Africa, and the Americas through extensive trade networks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| accommodation | The process by which one group adapts to or accepts practices and customs of another group, often as a result of interaction or conflict. |
| alliances | Formal or informal agreements between groups to cooperate, support, or defend each other against common enemies. |
| colonization | The process of establishing settlements and political control over a territory and its indigenous populations. |
| conflict | Disagreement or armed struggle between groups, often arising from competition over land, resources, or political authority. |
| Metacom's War | A military conflict in New England (1675-1678) between British colonists and American Indian groups led by Metacom, also known as King Philip's War. |
| Pueblo Revolt | A 1680 uprising by Pueblo Indians against Spanish colonial rule in the Southwest, resulting in temporary Spanish withdrawal and later Spanish accommodation of American Indian culture. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Atlantic slave trade | The transatlantic commercial system in which enslaved Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas to provide labor for colonial economies. |
| British West Indies | British colonies in the Caribbean that developed plantation economies based on staple crop production and enslaved African labor. |
| chattel slavery | A system of slavery in which enslaved people were treated as property that could be bought, sold, and inherited, becoming the dominant labor system in southern colonies. |
| covert resistance | Hidden or indirect forms of resistance to slavery that were not openly visible. |
| family systems | The structures and relationships within enslaved families that people worked to preserve despite slavery's attempts to separate them. |
| gender systems | The social roles and relationships between men and women that enslaved people maintained within their communities. |
| indentured servants | Laborers who agreed to work for a set period in exchange for passage to the colonies, initially used extensively in the Chesapeake region. |
| overt resistance | Direct, open forms of resistance to slavery that were visible and confrontational. |
| plantation systems | Large-scale agricultural enterprises in the Chesapeake and southern Atlantic coast that relied heavily on enslaved African labor to produce cash crops. |
| racial system | A legal and social hierarchy based on race that defined status and rights, including laws prohibiting interracial relationships and enslaving the descendants of African American mothers. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anglicization | The process by which British colonial societies adopted English cultural practices, institutions, and values over time. |
| Enlightenment | An intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason, individual rights, and limited government. |
| Enlightenment ideas | Intellectual concepts from the European Enlightenment emphasizing reason, individual rights, and scientific thinking that influenced colonial thought. |
| First Great Awakening | A religious revival movement in the American colonies during the early 18th century that emphasized personal conversion and emotional religious experience. |
| frontier defense | The protection and security of colonial borders and settlements, a source of disagreement between colonists and British leaders. |
| imperial control | The authority and power exercised by the British Empire over its colonies and colonial subjects. |
| intellectual exchange | The sharing and discussion of ideas and knowledge among different groups of people. |
| liberty | The concept of individual freedom and rights, a central idea in Enlightenment political thought and colonial ideology. |
| pluralism | The coexistence of diverse religious, ethnic, and cultural groups within a society. |
| Protestant evangelicalism | A form of Protestantism emphasizing personal conversion, biblical authority, and active missionary work that spread throughout the colonies. |
| religious independence and diversity | The freedom of colonists to practice different religions without state control, a characteristic of colonial society. |
| self-government | The right and ability of a people to govern themselves through their own chosen representatives and institutions rather than being ruled by an external authority. |
| territorial settlements | Disputes and agreements regarding the boundaries and control of land between European powers and colonists. |
| trade | Commercial exchange of goods, a key area of conflict between colonial interests and British imperial policy. |
| transatlantic print culture | The circulation of printed materials, newspapers, and books across the Atlantic Ocean that connected colonial and European intellectual communities. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Indians | The indigenous peoples of North America who had established societies, economies, and political systems before European contact. |
| Atlantic slave trade | The transatlantic commercial system in which enslaved Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas to provide labor for colonial economies. |
| British colonizers | European settlers and administrators from Britain who established colonies in North America with specific economic and political objectives. |
| colonization patterns | The different methods and approaches used by European powers to establish and organize settlements in North America based on their imperial goals and local conditions. |
| cultural factors | The beliefs, practices, and traditions of colonizers that influenced the development and character of colonial societies. |
| demographic factors | Population characteristics such as size, composition, and distribution that shaped colonial societies and their development. |
| Dutch colonizers | European settlers and administrators from the Dutch Republic who established colonies in North America with specific economic and political objectives. |
| economic factors | The systems of production, trade, and labor that shaped colonial development and differentiated regions from one another. |
| environmental factors | Geographic and climate conditions that influenced colonial settlement patterns, economic development, and social structures. |
| French colonizers | European settlers and administrators from France who established colonies in North America with specific economic and political objectives. |
| imperial goals | The political, economic, and territorial objectives that European powers sought to achieve through colonization in North America. |
| migration patterns | The movement of people from one geographic location to another, including the causes and consequences of such movements over time. |
| regional differences | Variations in environmental, economic, cultural, and demographic characteristics among British colonies along the Atlantic coast. |
| resource competition | The struggle between European colonizers and American Indians for control of land, furs, and other valuable resources in North America. |
| Spanish colonizers | European settlers and administrators from Spain who established colonies in North America with specific economic and political objectives. |
| system of slavery | The institutionalized practice of enslaving people, developed in the English colonies to reflect their specific economic, demographic, and geographic needs. |
| transatlantic commercial exchanges | Trade and economic interactions between the British colonies and Great Britain that strengthened economic ties and interdependence. |
| transatlantic philosophical exchanges | The sharing of intellectual ideas and Enlightenment thought between the British colonies and Great Britain. |
| transatlantic political exchanges | The transmission of political ideas, governance concepts, and constitutional principles between the British colonies and Great Britain. |
| transatlantic religious exchanges | The transmission of religious ideas, movements, and practices between the British colonies and Great Britain. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Indians | The indigenous peoples of North America who had established societies, economies, and political systems before European contact. |
| Appalachians | The mountain range in eastern North America that served as a boundary for colonial settlement and westward expansion. |
| balance between liberty and order | The tension between protecting individual freedoms and maintaining governmental authority and social stability. |
| bonded labor | A system of forced labor in which workers are bound to service, often used by Spanish colonizers with American Indian populations. |
| British presence | The continued military, political, and territorial influence of Great Britain in North America after the American Revolution. |
| cultural blending | The mixing and integration of different cultural practices, beliefs, and traditions resulting from contact between distinct groups. |
| Democratic-Republican Party | A political party led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison that opposed Federalist policies and advocated for states' rights. |
| diplomatic initiatives | Official efforts by the U.S. government to establish relationships and negotiate agreements with foreign powers. |
| economic policy | Government decisions and actions regarding taxation, spending, banking, and commerce in the new republic. |
| federal government | The central national government of the United States with authority over the states. |
| Federalists | A political party led by Alexander Hamilton that advocated for a strong national government and centralized economic policy. |
| foreign policy | Government strategies and decisions regarding relationships, alliances, and conflicts with other nations. |
| free trade | The unrestricted exchange of goods between nations without tariffs or trade barriers. |
| French Revolution | The late 18th-century political upheaval in France that created diplomatic challenges for the United States regarding trade and foreign policy. |
| legal claims | Formal assertions of rights or ownership, particularly regarding land and sovereignty. |
| mission settlements | Spanish religious communities established in territories like California to convert American Indians and extend Spanish control. |
| Mississippi River | A major North American river whose free navigation was a key issue in U.S. foreign policy and territorial disputes. |
| party systems | Organized political groups competing for power and influence in government, such as the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans. |
| permanent foreign alliances | Long-term commitments to other nations that could entangle the United States in foreign conflicts, warned against by Washington. |
| political factions | Organized groups within the government or society that compete for power and pursue different political interests. |
| political ideas | Concepts and philosophies about government, power, and the organization of society that influenced the development of the new American republic. |
| political institutions | Formal structures and organizations of government established to implement constitutional principles in the new republic. |
| precedents | Actions or decisions established during the Washington and Adams administrations that set examples for future presidential conduct. |
| seizure of lands | The forcible taking of American Indian territories by the U.S. government or settlers. |
| social mobility | The ability of individuals to move up or down in social and economic status within a society. |
| Spanish presence | The continued military, political, and territorial influence of Spain in North America after the American Revolution. |
| treaties | Formal agreements between the U.S. government and American Indian nations regarding land, sovereignty, and other matters. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Indians | The indigenous peoples of North America who had established societies, economies, and political systems before European contact. |
| American Revolution | The armed conflict (1775-1783) between Great Britain and thirteen American colonies that resulted in American independence and the formation of the United States. |
| centralized power | Authority concentrated in a single central government rather than distributed among regional or local governments. |
| constitutions | Written documents that establish the structure of government, define the powers of different branches, and protect individual rights. |
| cultural blending | The mixing and integration of different cultural practices, beliefs, and traditions resulting from contact between distinct groups. |
| declarations of rights | Formal statements that articulate and protect the fundamental freedoms and liberties of individuals against government infringement. |
| democratic ideals | Principles based on the belief that power should rest with the people and that government should be responsive to the will of the governed. |
| economic interests | The financial and commercial goals and advantages that a nation seeks to protect and advance. |
| federalism | A system of government in which power is divided between a central federal government and the states. |
| independence | The state of being self-governing and free from the control or influence of others. |
| independence movements | Political and military efforts by colonized or subjugated peoples to achieve self-governance and freedom from foreign rule. |
| individual liberties | Fundamental freedoms and rights guaranteed to individuals, such as freedom of speech, religion, and due process. |
| migration | The movement of people from one region or country to another, often in search of better opportunities or resources. |
| national culture | Shared beliefs, values, customs, and practices that Americans developed to define themselves as a unified nation during the early 19th century. |
| national identity | A shared sense of belonging and common characteristics that define a nation and its people, distinct from colonial or regional identities. |
| neutral trading rights | The ability of a nation to engage in commerce with other nations without being forced to take sides in their conflicts. |
| political institutions | Formal structures and organizations of government established to implement constitutional principles in the new republic. |
| regional differences | Variations in environmental, economic, cultural, and demographic characteristics among British colonies along the Atlantic coast. |
| republican ideals | Principles based on the belief that government should be a republic where power is held by elected representatives rather than a monarch. |
| self-government | The right and ability of a people to govern themselves through their own chosen representatives and institutions rather than being ruled by an external authority. |
| Seven Years' War | A global conflict (1756-1763) between Britain and France, known in North America as the French and Indian War, that resulted in British territorial expansion and set the stage for colonial tensions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American culture | The shared beliefs, values, customs, and artistic expressions that developed among people in the United States during a specific historical period. |
| national culture | Shared beliefs, values, customs, and practices that Americans developed to define themselves as a unified nation during the early 19th century. |
| national identity | A shared sense of belonging and common characteristics that define a nation and its people, distinct from colonial or regional identities. |
| regional differences | Variations in environmental, economic, cultural, and demographic characteristics among British colonies along the Atlantic coast. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| alliances | Formal or informal agreements between groups to cooperate, support, or defend each other against common enemies. |
| American Indians | The indigenous peoples of North America who had established societies, economies, and political systems before European contact. |
| antislavery sentiment | Opposition to the institution of slavery, including moral, religious, and political objections to the practice. |
| deep South | The southernmost states of the United States, including South Carolina, Georgia, and other states where slavery became increasingly central to the economy. |
| ethnic tensions | Conflicts and disagreements between groups based on cultural, racial, or national identity differences. |
| frontier cultures | The distinctive ways of life, values, and social practices that developed in colonial and early American border regions between settled and unsettled territories. |
| immigration | The process of people moving into a country or region with the intention to settle permanently. |
| migration | The movement of people from one region or country to another, often in search of better opportunities or resources. |
| natural resources | Materials and assets provided by nature, such as land, water, minerals, and forests, that have economic or survival value. |
| political tensions | Conflicts and disagreements between groups or governments over power, authority, and governance. |
| regional attitudes | Distinct beliefs and positions held by different geographic areas regarding social, economic, and political issues. |
| slavery | The institution of forced labor in which people were held as property and exploited for economic gain in the British colonies. |
| social tensions | Conflicts and disagreements between different groups in society based on cultural, economic, or social differences. |
| tribal lands | Territory owned and controlled by American Indian nations for hunting, settlement, and resource use. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Revolution | The armed conflict (1775-1783) between Great Britain and thirteen American colonies that resulted in American independence and the formation of the United States. |
| centralized power | Authority concentrated in a single central government rather than distributed among regional or local governments. |
| cultural blending | The mixing and integration of different cultural practices, beliefs, and traditions resulting from contact between distinct groups. |
| declarations of rights | Formal statements that articulate and protect the fundamental freedoms and liberties of individuals against government infringement. |
| democratic ideals | Principles based on the belief that power should rest with the people and that government should be responsive to the will of the governed. |
| economic interests | The financial and commercial goals and advantages that a nation seeks to protect and advance. |
| independence movements | Political and military efforts by colonized or subjugated peoples to achieve self-governance and freedom from foreign rule. |
| individual liberties | Fundamental freedoms and rights guaranteed to individuals, such as freedom of speech, religion, and due process. |
| national culture | Shared beliefs, values, customs, and practices that Americans developed to define themselves as a unified nation during the early 19th century. |
| neutral trading rights | The ability of a nation to engage in commerce with other nations without being forced to take sides in their conflicts. |
| political institutions | Formal structures and organizations of government established to implement constitutional principles in the new republic. |
| regional differences | Variations in environmental, economic, cultural, and demographic characteristics among British colonies along the Atlantic coast. |
| republican ideals | Principles based on the belief that government should be a republic where power is held by elected representatives rather than a monarch. |
| self-government | The right and ability of a people to govern themselves through their own chosen representatives and institutions rather than being ruled by an external authority. |
| Seven Years' War | A global conflict (1756-1763) between Britain and France, known in North America as the French and Indian War, that resulted in British territorial expansion and set the stage for colonial tensions. |
| shifting alliances | Changes in political and military partnerships among different groups competing for resources and influence in post-independence North America. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Indian autonomy | The independence and self-governance of Native American nations in controlling their own territories and political affairs. |
| colonial opposition | Resistance by British colonists to policies and restrictions imposed by imperial officials. |
| colonial rivalry | Competition between European powers, particularly Britain and France, for control of territory, resources, and trade in North America during the mid-18th century. |
| French–Indian trade networks | Commercial relationships between French traders and American Indian nations that facilitated the exchange of furs and European goods in North America. |
| imperial control | The authority and power exercised by the British Empire over its colonies and colonial subjects. |
| Seven Years' War | A global conflict (1756-1763) between Britain and France, known in North America as the French and Indian War, that resulted in British territorial expansion and set the stage for colonial tensions. |
| territorial holdings | Lands and regions controlled and claimed by a nation or empire. |
| westward expansion | The movement of British colonists into the interior regions of North America, particularly west of the Appalachian Mountains. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| British colonial policies | The rules, regulations, and directives established by the British government to control and govern its North American colonies. |
| British military occupation | The stationing of British troops in colonial regions to enforce imperial authority and control. |
| Enlightenment | An intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason, individual rights, and limited government. |
| imperial control | The authority and power exercised by the British Empire over its colonies and colonial subjects. |
| imperial struggles | Conflicts and competitions between European powers, particularly Britain, over control of colonial territories and resources in the mid-18th century. |
| natural rights | Fundamental rights believed to belong to all people by virtue of their humanity, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. |
| Patriot movement | The organized effort by American colonists to resist British authority and achieve independence from Great Britain. |
| political activism | Organized efforts by individuals and groups to influence government policy and bring about political change. |
| rights of Englishmen | Traditional legal and political rights claimed by English subjects, including representation in government and protection from arbitrary taxation. |
| taxation without representation | The British practice of imposing taxes on the colonies without allowing colonists to have elected representatives in Parliament to consent to or vote on these taxes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Common Sense | A political pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776 that argued for American independence and republican government based on natural rights. |
| Declaration of Independence | The 1776 document that declared the American colonies' separation from British rule and articulated principles of natural rights and popular sovereignty. |
| Enlightenment ideas | Intellectual concepts from the European Enlightenment emphasizing reason, individual rights, and scientific thinking that influenced colonial thought. |
| hereditary privilege | Rights, status, or advantages granted to individuals based on their family background or inherited nobility rather than personal merit. |
| individual talent | The concept that a person's abilities and merit should determine their position and status in society, rather than family lineage or inherited rank. |
| natural rights | Fundamental rights believed to belong to all people by virtue of their humanity, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. |
| republican forms of government | Systems of government in which power is held by elected representatives and sovereignty rests with the people rather than a monarch. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| colonial militias | Local military forces composed of colonists who fought for independence during the American Revolution. |
| Continental Army | The main military force of the thirteen colonies during the American Revolution, led by George Washington. |
| European allies | Foreign nations, particularly France, Spain, and the Netherlands, that provided military and financial support to the American cause during the Revolution. |
| ideological commitment | The colonists' dedication to principles of independence and self-governance that motivated their Revolutionary efforts. |
| loyalist opposition | Resistance from colonists who remained loyal to British rule during the American Revolution. |
| Patriot cause | The movement and ideology supporting American independence from British rule during the Revolution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abolition of slavery | The movement to end the institution of slavery and free enslaved people. |
| American Revolution | The armed conflict (1775-1783) between Great Britain and thirteen American colonies that resulted in American independence and the formation of the United States. |
| Declaration of Independence | The 1776 document that declared the American colonies' separation from British rule and articulated principles of natural rights and popular sovereignty. |
| Enlightenment ideas | Intellectual concepts from the European Enlightenment emphasizing reason, individual rights, and scientific thinking that influenced colonial thought. |
| independence movements | Political and military efforts by colonized or subjugated peoples to achieve self-governance and freedom from foreign rule. |
| participatory democracy | A system of government in which a broader range of citizens have the right to vote and participate in the political process, expanded in this period through suffrage reform. |
| republican motherhood | An ideal that emerged after the American Revolution calling on women to educate their children in republican values and civic virtue to support the new nation. |
| republican values | Principles of civic virtue, public service, and commitment to the common good central to republican ideology. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Articles of Confederation | The first constitution of the United States that created a weak central government with limited powers to coordinate the newly independent states. |
| central government | The national government that unified the states under the Articles of Confederation, though with severely limited authority. |
| foreign relations | Diplomatic and political relationships between the United States and other nations, which were difficult to manage under the weak central government. |
| interstate commerce | Trade and economic activity between different states, which created conflicts under the Articles of Confederation. |
| legislative branch | The branch of government responsible for making laws, which held primary power in many early state governments. |
| Northwest Ordinance | A 1787 law enacted by Congress that established procedures for admitting new states and governed the Northwest Territory. |
| Northwest Territory | The region north of the Ohio River and west of Pennsylvania, governed by the Northwest Ordinance. |
| property qualifications | Requirements that individuals own a certain amount of property in order to vote or hold citizenship. |
| state constitutions | Written documents that established the fundamental laws and structure of government for individual states during and after the Revolutionary period. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anti-Federalists | Opponents of the Constitution who feared a strong central government and advocated for greater state power and individual rights protections. |
| Bill of Rights | The first ten amendments to the Constitution that enumerate and protect individual rights and explicitly restrict the powers of the federal government. |
| Constitutional Convention | The 1787 gathering of state delegates in Philadelphia that drafted the United States Constitution through negotiation, collaboration, and compromise. |
| federalism | A system of government in which power is divided between a central federal government and the states. |
| Federalist Papers | A series of essays written primarily by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison to explain and defend the Constitution during the ratification debates. |
| Federalists | A political party led by Alexander Hamilton that advocated for a strong national government and centralized economic policy. |
| limited government | A system of government in which the powers of the government are restricted by law, typically through a constitution. |
| ratification | The formal approval and adoption of the Constitution by the states. |
| separation of powers | The division of government authority among three branches—executive, legislative, and judicial—to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Constitutional Convention | The 1787 gathering of state delegates in Philadelphia that drafted the United States Constitution through negotiation, collaboration, and compromise. |
| federalism | A system of government in which power is divided between a central federal government and the states. |
| limited government | A system of government in which the powers of the government are restricted by law, typically through a constitution. |
| ratification | The formal approval and adoption of the Constitution by the states. |
| separation of powers | The division of government authority among three branches—executive, legislative, and judicial—to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| democratic beliefs | Ideals emphasizing popular sovereignty, individual rights, and representative government that influenced American society in the early 19th century. |
| geographical mobility | The movement of people from one region or location to another, including westward expansion and migration to urban areas. |
| individualistic beliefs | Philosophical ideas emphasizing personal autonomy, individual responsibility, and self-improvement that influenced American reform movements. |
| market revolution | The transformation of the American economy from subsistence farming and local trade to a national market economy based on commercial production and exchange. |
| rationalism | An Enlightenment philosophy emphasizing reason and logic as the primary sources of knowledge, influencing early 19th-century American thought. |
| Second Great Awakening | A Protestant religious revival movement in early 19th-century America that emphasized personal conversion and moral improvement, inspiring social and reform movements. |
| social mobility | The ability of individuals to move up or down in social and economic status within a society. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural production | The cultivation and harvesting of crops and livestock for commercial purposes. |
| foreign policy | Government strategies and decisions regarding relationships, alliances, and conflicts with other nations. |
| foreign trade | The exchange of goods and services between the United States and other nations. |
| gender and family relations | The social roles, relationships, and dynamics between men and women within households and families. |
| intellectual movements | Organized developments in philosophy, science, and ideas that shaped how people understood society and the economy. |
| manufacturing | The production of goods in factories using industrial methods, which became a major driver of economic growth in the Northern United States. |
| market revolution | The transformation of the American economy from subsistence farming and local trade to a national market economy based on commercial production and exchange. |
| national culture | Shared beliefs, values, customs, and practices that Americans developed to define themselves as a unified nation during the early 19th century. |
| participatory democracy | A system of government in which a broader range of citizens have the right to vote and participate in the political process, expanded in this period through suffrage reform. |
| political parties | Organized groups of citizens united by common ideals and goals that compete for political power and influence. |
| property ownership | The holding of land or possessions as a basis for determining voting rights or social status. |
| regional identities | The cultural and social characteristics that distinguish different geographic regions and their populations. |
| religious movements | Organized groups or trends centered on religious beliefs and practices that gain followers and influence over time. |
| republic | A form of government in which power rests with citizens and their elected representatives rather than with a monarch or single ruler. |
| settlement patterns | The distribution and arrangement of human populations across geographic areas. |
| slavery extension | The debate and contests over whether slavery would be permitted in newly acquired western territories, a major political conflict of the period. |
| suffrage | The right to vote in political elections, which expanded from property-based qualifications to include all adult white men during this period. |
| trade patterns | The established routes and systems through which goods are exchanged between regions and nations. |
| transportation systems | Networks and infrastructure, such as canals, railroads, and roads, that facilitate the movement of goods and people. |
| westward expansion | The movement of British colonists into the interior regions of North America, particularly west of the Appalachian Mountains. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abolitionist movements | Organized efforts to end slavery and emancipate enslaved people, particularly in the Northern states during the early 19th century. |
| democratic beliefs | Ideals emphasizing popular sovereignty, individual rights, and representative government that influenced American society in the early 19th century. |
| emancipation | The act of freeing enslaved people from bondage and granting them freedom. |
| free African Americans | African Americans who were not enslaved, primarily concentrated in Northern states during the early 19th century. |
| individualistic beliefs | Philosophical ideas emphasizing personal autonomy, individual responsibility, and self-improvement that influenced American reform movements. |
| market revolution | The transformation of the American economy from subsistence farming and local trade to a national market economy based on commercial production and exchange. |
| rationalism | An Enlightenment philosophy emphasizing reason and logic as the primary sources of knowledge, influencing early 19th-century American thought. |
| reform movements | Organized efforts by groups of people seeking to improve society by changing laws, institutions, or individual behaviors during the early 19th century. |
| Second Great Awakening | A Protestant religious revival movement in early 19th-century America that emphasized personal conversion and moral improvement, inspiring social and reform movements. |
| Seneca Falls Convention | A women's rights convention held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, where participants expressed ideals of gender equality and drafted the Declaration of Sentiments. |
| temperance | A reform movement advocating for the reduction or elimination of alcohol consumption to improve individual morality and social conditions. |
| utopian movements | Religious and social communities established in the 19th century based on idealistic visions of a perfect or ideal society. |
| voluntary organizations | Groups formed by citizens who joined together voluntarily to promote social and political reform causes. |
| women's rights movement | Social and political movement advocating for equal rights and opportunities for women, including suffrage and legal protections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abolitionist movements | Organized efforts to end slavery and emancipate enslaved people, particularly in the Northern states during the early 19th century. |
| changes | Transformations or alterations in conditions, experiences, or circumstances over a period of time. |
| communities | Groups of people, often enslaved or free African Americans, who formed social and cultural bonds for mutual support and protection. |
| continuities | Elements, patterns, or conditions that remained consistent or unchanged over a period of time. |
| enslaved people | Individuals held in bondage and forced to labor without freedom or compensation. |
| family structures | The organization and relationships within families, including kinship bonds that African Americans worked to maintain and protect. |
| free African Americans | African Americans who were not enslaved, primarily concentrated in Northern states during the early 19th century. |
| political efforts | Organized actions and advocacy aimed at influencing government policy and changing legal or social status. |
| rebellions | Organized armed resistance or uprisings by enslaved people against their enslavement. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural staples | Primary crops grown for export and economic profit, such as cotton, tobacco, and rice in the Southern economy. |
| Appalachians | The mountain range in eastern North America that served as a boundary for colonial settlement and westward expansion. |
| arable land | Land suitable for farming and crop production. |
| environmental factors | Geographic and climate conditions that influenced colonial settlement patterns, economic development, and social structures. |
| geographic factors | Physical characteristics of a region such as climate, terrain, and natural resources that influence economic and social development. |
| overcultivation | The practice of farming land intensively without allowing it to recover, leading to soil depletion and reduced fertility. |
| plantation | A large agricultural estate in the South that produced cash crops, typically worked by enslaved labor. |
| slavery | The institution of forced labor in which people were held as property and exploited for economic gain in the British colonies. |
| Southern regional identity | A distinctive cultural and economic identity developed by the South based on agricultural production, slavery, and social hierarchy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural production | The cultivation and harvesting of crops and livestock for commercial purposes. |
| American identity | The shared characteristics, values, and sense of belonging that define what it means to be American, shaped by historical events and cultural developments. |
| foreign policy | Government strategies and decisions regarding relationships, alliances, and conflicts with other nations. |
| foreign trade | The exchange of goods and services between the United States and other nations. |
| manufacturing | The production of goods in factories using industrial methods, which became a major driver of economic growth in the Northern United States. |
| market revolution | The transformation of the American economy from subsistence farming and local trade to a national market economy based on commercial production and exchange. |
| national culture | Shared beliefs, values, customs, and practices that Americans developed to define themselves as a unified nation during the early 19th century. |
| participatory democracy | A system of government in which a broader range of citizens have the right to vote and participate in the political process, expanded in this period through suffrage reform. |
| political parties | Organized groups of citizens united by common ideals and goals that compete for political power and influence. |
| slavery extension | The debate and contests over whether slavery would be permitted in newly acquired western territories, a major political conflict of the period. |
| suffrage | The right to vote in political elections, which expanded from property-based qualifications to include all adult white men during this period. |
| territorial expansion | The process of acquiring and incorporating new lands into a nation's control, particularly through military victory or diplomatic negotiation. |
| transportation systems | Networks and infrastructure, such as canals, railroads, and roads, that facilitate the movement of goods and people. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Constitution | The fundamental governing document of the United States, whose interpretation was a central issue in early republic policy debates. |
| diplomatic efforts | Official negotiations and relations conducted by the U.S. government to establish influence and control over North America in the early 1800s. |
| exploration | The act of traveling to and investigating unfamiliar territories, in this context referring to European voyages to the Americas. |
| federal government | The central national government of the United States with authority over the states. |
| federal laws | Laws enacted by the national government that were established to take precedence over state laws in the early republic. |
| judicial review | The power of the Supreme Court to determine the meaning of the Constitution and establish the primacy of the judiciary in constitutional interpretation. |
| Louisiana Purchase | The 1803 acquisition of the Louisiana Territory from France, which expanded U.S. territory and prompted debates over federal power and westward expansion. |
| state laws | Laws enacted by individual states, which were subordinate to federal laws according to Supreme Court decisions in the early republic. |
| Supreme Court | The highest court in the United States, which established its authority to interpret the Constitution and determine the meaning of federal law. |
| tariff | A tax imposed on imported goods, a major policy debate in the early republic regarding federal economic power. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American System | A plan to unify and strengthen the U.S. economy through federal investment in infrastructure, protective tariffs, and a national bank. |
| economic policy | Government decisions and actions regarding taxation, spending, banking, and commerce in the new republic. |
| federal government | The central national government of the United States with authority over the states. |
| Missouri Compromise | A congressional agreement that temporarily resolved tensions between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces by admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. |
| political compromise | An agreement between opposing political groups in which each side makes concessions to reach a settlement. |
| regional interests | The economic, political, and social priorities specific to different geographic areas of the country that often influenced political leaders' positions on major issues. |
| slavery | The institution of forced labor in which people were held as property and exploited for economic gain in the British colonies. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Indian removal | The forced displacement of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands, often to territories west of the Mississippi River, as part of U.S. territorial expansion. |
| foreign policy | Government strategies and decisions regarding relationships, alliances, and conflicts with other nations. |
| foreign trade | The exchange of goods and services between the United States and other nations. |
| Monroe Doctrine | An 1823 U.S. foreign policy declaration warning European powers against colonizing or interfering in the Americas and asserting American dominance in the Western Hemisphere. |
| Western Hemisphere | The half of Earth containing North and South America, which became a focus of U.S. foreign policy and influence. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural inventions | Technological innovations designed to increase the efficiency of farming and crop production. |
| banking | Financial institutions and services that grew alongside Northern manufacturing and commerce to support economic expansion. |
| canals | Artificial waterways constructed as transportation infrastructure to extend markets and foster regional interdependence. |
| cotton production | The cultivation and harvesting of cotton, particularly in the Southern states, which became a major driver of national and international commerce. |
| entrepreneurs | Individuals who organized and invested in new business ventures to create the market revolution in production and commerce. |
| interchangeable parts | Standardized components that could be used in place of one another, increasing production efficiency and reducing manufacturing costs. |
| manufacturing | The production of goods in factories using industrial methods, which became a major driver of economic growth in the Northern United States. |
| market revolution | The transformation of the American economy from subsistence farming and local trade to a national market economy based on commercial production and exchange. |
| railroads | Transportation networks supported by legislation and judicial systems that extended markets and linked regions more closely together. |
| regional interdependence | Economic relationships between different regions where each relies on the other for goods and services, fostered by transportation networks. |
| roads | Transportation infrastructure supported by legislation and judicial systems to extend and enlarge markets. |
| shipping industries | Commercial enterprises involved in transporting goods, which expanded in Northern states in connection with cotton production and manufacturing. |
| steam engines | Machines powered by steam that increased the efficiency of production methods in manufacturing and transportation. |
| telegraph | A communication technology that transmitted messages over long distances, increasing efficiency in commerce and coordination. |
| textile machinery | Mechanical innovations designed to increase the efficiency of cloth production. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Appalachians | The mountain range in eastern North America that served as a boundary for colonial settlement and westward expansion. |
| business elite | A small group of wealthy entrepreneurs and industrialists who accumulated significant capital and power during the Market Revolution. |
| domestic ideals | Cultural values and expectations regarding family life and women's roles that emphasized the separation of public and private spheres during the Market Revolution. |
| innovation in agriculture | The development of new farming techniques and tools that increased agricultural productivity and transformed rural American society. |
| innovation in commerce | The development of new methods of trade, distribution, and economic exchange that expanded markets and connected distant regions. |
| innovation in technology | The development and application of new technological methods and tools that changed production and commerce during the Market Revolution. |
| laboring poor | A large and growing population of workers, including factory workers and laborers, who earned subsistence wages during the Market Revolution. |
| manufacturing | The production of goods in factories using industrial methods, which became a major driver of economic growth in the Northern United States. |
| middle class | A social and economic group characterized by professional occupations, managerial positions, clerical work, and access to education and consumer goods. |
| Ohio and Mississippi rivers | Major river systems in North America along which new communities developed during westward expansion in the early nineteenth century. |
| semi-subsistence agriculture | A farming system in which families produced primarily for their own consumption with limited surplus for market sale. |
| separation of public and private spheres | The ideological division between the workplace and market economy (public) and the home and family life (private) that developed during the Market Revolution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| adult white men | The expanding electorate in the early 19th century as voting rights were extended beyond property owners to include all white male citizens of voting age. |
| participatory democracy | A system of government in which a broader range of citizens have the right to vote and participate in the political process, expanded in this period through suffrage reform. |
| political parties | Organized groups of citizens united by common ideals and goals that compete for political power and influence. |
| property ownership | The holding of land or possessions as a basis for determining voting rights or social status. |
| suffrage | The right to vote in political elections, which expanded from property-based qualifications to include all adult white men during this period. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Indian populations | Native American peoples who were subject to federal control and relocation policies during this era. |
| American Indian resistance | Native American opposition to federal policies and westward expansion that led to military conflicts and forced relocation efforts. |
| Democrats | A political party that emerged in the 1820s-1830s, led by Andrew Jackson, with particular views on federal power and governance. |
| internal improvements | Federally funded infrastructure projects such as roads and canals that became a contested issue in debates about the scope of federal authority. |
| national bank | A central financial institution that became a major point of political debate regarding federal economic power and control. |
| policy debates | Ongoing political discussions and disagreements about government decisions and their implementation. |
| role of the federal government | The extent and nature of powers exercised by the national government, including questions about centralization versus state authority. |
| tariff | A tax imposed on imported goods, a major policy debate in the early republic regarding federal economic power. |
| Whigs | A political party that emerged in the 1820s-1830s, led by Henry Clay, with contrasting views to the Democrats on federal power and governance. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| human perfectibility | The Romantic belief that individuals and society could be improved and perfected through education, reform, and moral development. |
| liberal social ideas | Progressive European philosophical concepts emphasizing individual rights, democratic principles, and social reform. |
| national culture | Shared beliefs, values, customs, and practices that Americans developed to define themselves as a unified nation during the early 19th century. |
| Romanticism | An intellectual and artistic movement emphasizing emotion, imagination, individualism, and the belief in human perfectibility and progress. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| 13th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that abolished slavery throughout the United States. |
| 14th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that granted citizenship and equal protection under the laws to formerly enslaved people and other African Americans. |
| 15th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that granted African American men the right to vote regardless of race or previous condition of servitude. |
| citizenship | The legal and political status of belonging to a nation, including rights and responsibilities debated during the Gilded Age. |
| Congress | The legislative branch of the federal government, consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives. |
| enslaved people | Individuals held in bondage and forced to labor without freedom or compensation. |
| equal protection under the laws | Constitutional guarantee that all citizens receive the same legal protections and treatment regardless of race or other characteristics. |
| federal government | The central national government of the United States with authority over the states. |
| moderate Republicans | Republican faction during Reconstruction that favored a less aggressive approach to Reconstruction and greater leniency toward the South. |
| presidency | The executive office and authority of the President of the United States. |
| race relations | The social, political, and economic interactions and dynamics between different racial groups in society. |
| radical Republicans | Republican faction during Reconstruction that advocated for more aggressive federal intervention in the South and stronger protections for African American rights. |
| Reconstruction | The period from 1865 to 1877 following the Civil War during which the federal government worked to rebuild the South and integrate formerly enslaved people into society. |
| voting rights | The legal right of citizens to participate in elections and vote for candidates and policies. |
| women's rights movement | Social and political movement advocating for equal rights and opportunities for women, including suffrage and legal protections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| sectional conflict | Political and social tensions between different regions of the United States, particularly between the North and South, driven by competing interests and values. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| 14th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that granted citizenship and equal protection under the laws to formerly enslaved people and other African Americans. |
| 15th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that granted African American men the right to vote regardless of race or previous condition of servitude. |
| African American rights | The legal and social protections and freedoms sought by and guaranteed to African Americans, including voting rights, equal protection, and freedom from discrimination. |
| land ownership | The possession and control of property, which former slaves sought as a means to economic independence and self-sufficiency after emancipation. |
| plantation owners | Southern landowners who controlled large agricultural estates and maintained economic power over land and labor after the Civil War. |
| Reconstruction | The period from 1865 to 1877 following the Civil War during which the federal government worked to rebuild the South and integrate formerly enslaved people into society. |
| segregation | The forced separation of people based on race, enforced through laws and social practices, particularly in the American South. |
| self-sufficiency | The ability to meet one's own needs without depending on external resources or support. |
| sharecropping | An exploitative agricultural system in which former slaves and poor whites worked land owned by others in exchange for a share of the crop, often leaving them in debt and without true economic independence. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American values | Core principles and beliefs that define American society, such as democracy, liberty, equality, and national unity. |
| Civil War | The armed conflict between the Union and Confederate states (1861-1865) that resulted from Southern secession. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American institutions | The political, social, and economic systems of the United States that expansionists believed were superior and should be extended westward. |
| economic development | Growth and expansion of economic activity and prosperity in western regions through investment and resource extraction. |
| economic opportunities | Prospects for financial gain and prosperity that motivated settlers to migrate westward, including farming, mining, and trade. |
| Manifest Destiny | The 19th-century belief that American expansion across North America to the Pacific Ocean was justified and inevitable. |
| mineral resources | Valuable natural deposits such as gold, silver, and other minerals found in western territories that attracted economic development. |
| natural resources | Materials and assets provided by nature, such as land, water, minerals, and forests, that have economic or survival value. |
| religious refuge | Safe haven for religious groups seeking freedom to practice their faith, which motivated some westward migration. |
| trade | Commercial exchange of goods, a key area of conflict between colonial interests and British imperial policy. |
| violent conflict | Armed confrontations and warfare resulting from competition over western lands and resources. |
| western transportation | Infrastructure and systems for moving goods and people across western territories, including railroads and roads. |
| westward expansion | The movement of British colonists into the interior regions of North America, particularly west of the Appalachian Mountains. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Indians | The indigenous peoples of North America who had established societies, economies, and political systems before European contact. |
| diplomatic negotiations | Formal discussions and agreements between European and Native American leaders to resolve conflicts and establish terms of interaction. |
| economic self-sufficiency | The ability of a group or community to meet its own economic needs independently, which was altered for Mexican Americans and American Indians following U.S. territorial acquisition. |
| Mexican-American War | A conflict between the United States and Mexico (1846-1848) that resulted in significant territorial gains for the United States in the West. |
| Mexicans | People of Mexican descent living in territories acquired by the United States, whose economic and cultural circumstances were significantly altered by U.S. government policies. |
| slavery | The institution of forced labor in which people were held as property and exploited for economic gain in the British colonies. |
| territorial expansion | The process of acquiring and incorporating new lands into a nation's control, particularly through military victory or diplomatic negotiation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Compromise of 1850 | A series of legislative measures designed to resolve disputes over slavery in territories acquired from Mexico and to maintain sectional balance. |
| federal policy | Laws and decisions made by the national government in response to sectional conflicts and territorial issues. |
| Mexican Cession | The territory acquired by the United States from Mexico following the Mexican-American War, which became the subject of intense debate over slavery expansion. |
| regional attitudes | Distinct beliefs and positions held by different geographic areas regarding social, economic, and political issues. |
| slavery extension | The debate and contests over whether slavery would be permitted in newly acquired western territories, a major political conflict of the period. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abolitionists | Activists who opposed slavery on moral grounds and worked to end the institution entirely. |
| anti-Catholic | Opposition to or discrimination against Roman Catholicism and its followers, particularly prevalent in 19th-century America against Irish and German immigrants. |
| enslaved labor | Labor performed by people who are held in bondage and forced to work without compensation or freedom. |
| ethnic communities | Neighborhoods or settlements where people of the same national origin or cultural background lived together, often preserving their native languages and customs. |
| free labor | Labor performed by workers who are paid wages and are free to leave their employment, as opposed to enslaved labor. |
| free-soil movement | A political movement that opposed the expansion of slavery into new territories and states, arguing that slavery was incompatible with free labor. |
| immigration | The process of people moving into a country or region with the intention to settle permanently. |
| manufacturing | The production of goods in factories using industrial methods, which became a major driver of economic growth in the Northern United States. |
| nativism | A political movement that favors native-born citizens over immigrants and seeks to restrict immigration and immigrant rights. |
| racial doctrines | Theories and beliefs used to justify racial hierarchies and the enslavement of African Americans based on claims of racial superiority. |
| states' rights | The principle that individual states retain sovereignty and the right to govern themselves on matters not delegated to the federal government. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Dred Scott decision | An 1857 Supreme Court ruling that denied citizenship to enslaved and formerly enslaved people and invalidated the Missouri Compromise, escalating tensions over slavery. |
| Kansas-Nebraska Act | An 1854 law that allowed territories to decide the slavery question through popular sovereignty, intensifying sectional conflict over slavery's expansion. |
| nativism | A political movement that favors native-born citizens over immigrants and seeks to restrict immigration and immigrant rights. |
| Republican Party | A political party that emerged in the North in the 1850s, largely in opposition to slavery expansion in the territories. |
| Second Party System | The political era dominated by the Democratic and Whig parties that ended in the 1850s due to sectional divisions over slavery and nativism. |
| sectional parties | Political parties organized around regional interests and divisions, particularly the Republican Party's emergence as a northern party opposed to slavery expansion. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Civil War | The armed conflict between the Union and Confederate states (1861-1865) that resulted from Southern secession. |
| free-soil platform | The Republican Party's political position opposing the expansion of slavery into new territories and states. |
| secession | The act of withdrawing from the Union, as Southern states did following Lincoln's election in 1860. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| greater resources | The Union's superior access to raw materials, industrial capacity, manpower, and supplies compared to the Confederacy. |
| home front opposition | Civilian resistance and dissent within the Union and Confederacy against the war effort and government policies during the Civil War. |
| key victories | Significant military battles and engagements that turned the tide of the war in favor of the Union. |
| leadership and strategy | Military command decisions and tactical planning that improved over the course of the war, contributing to Union success. |
| military initiative | The strategic advantage gained by taking aggressive action and making bold military decisions, which the Confederacy demonstrated early in the war. |
| mobilized economies | The process by which the Union and Confederacy organized and directed their economic resources and production toward supporting the war effort. |
| Union victory | The successful outcome of the Northern states in the Civil War, achieved through superior resources, improved military leadership, and strategic advantages. |
| wartime destruction of the South's infrastructure | The systematic damage to Southern factories, railroads, farms, and other economic facilities during the war that weakened the Confederacy's ability to sustain the conflict. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Confederacy | The alliance of Southern states that seceded from the Union and fought against the North during the Civil War. |
| diplomatic support | Official recognition and alliance from foreign nations; European powers were less likely to support the Confederacy after the Emancipation Proclamation. |
| Emancipation Proclamation | An executive order issued by President Lincoln that declared slaves in Confederate states to be free, reframing the Civil War's purpose from preserving the Union to ending slavery. |
| Gettysburg Address | A speech delivered by Lincoln that reframed the Civil War as a struggle for democracy and the fulfillment of America's founding ideals of equality. |
| Union Army | The military forces of the North during the Civil War, which included African American soldiers who enlisted after the Emancipation Proclamation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| business consolidation | The process of combining multiple companies or business operations into larger, unified entities. |
| citizenship | The legal and political status of belonging to a nation, including rights and responsibilities debated during the Gilded Age. |
| corporate innovation | The creation of new business structures, management practices, and organizational strategies by companies to increase profits and market control. |
| cultural movements | Organized shifts in artistic, intellectual, and social thought that reflected or challenged prevailing values and beliefs. |
| financial panics | Sudden economic crises characterized by loss of confidence in the financial system, bank failures, and economic contraction. |
| Gilded Age | The period from the 1870s to 1900 marked by rapid industrialization, wealth accumulation, and social inequality in the United States. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system characterized by large-scale factory production, capital investment, and profit-driven business enterprises that emerged and expanded during the late 19th century. |
| industrialization | The transformation of an economy from agricultural to manufacturing-based through the development of factories and large-scale production. |
| intellectual movements | Organized developments in philosophy, science, and ideas that shaped how people understood society and the economy. |
| large-scale industrial production | Manufacturing of goods in massive quantities using factories, machinery, and organized labor systems. |
| migration | The movement of people from one region or country to another, often in search of better opportunities or resources. |
| national expansion | The westward growth and territorial extension of the United States during the late 19th century. |
| political corruption | Dishonest or unethical conduct by government officials and politicians. |
| public reform efforts | Organized campaigns and movements aimed at addressing social problems and improving government and business practices. |
| systems of production | The organized methods and technologies used to manufacture goods, including factory systems and assembly processes. |
| systems of transportation | Networks of railroads, canals, and roads that moved goods and people across the country to facilitate commerce. |
| technological innovations | New developments and improvements in technology that introduce novel methods, tools, or systems to society. |
| urban culture | The distinctive ways of life, values, and social practices that developed in growing American cities during the late 19th century. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| clerical workers | Office employees who performed administrative and record-keeping tasks for businesses and corporations. |
| consumer culture | A society centered on the purchase and consumption of goods and services, enabled by increased leisure time and disposable income. |
| corporations | Large business organizations that required managers and clerical workers to operate their expanding operations. |
| economic opportunity | Increased chances for individuals to earn income, gain employment, and improve their economic status through business and professional positions. |
| Gospel of Wealth | A philosophy asserting that wealthy business leaders had a moral obligation to use their fortunes to benefit society and improve social conditions. |
| leisure time | Free time available for recreation and non-work activities, which increased for the growing middle class. |
| middle class | A social and economic group characterized by professional occupations, managerial positions, clerical work, and access to education and consumer goods. |
| philanthropic contributions | Charitable donations made by wealthy individuals to support educational institutions and urban development. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agrarians | Reformers who advocated for the interests of farmers and promoted agricultural-based economic and social alternatives. |
| Gilded Age | The period from the 1870s to 1900 marked by rapid industrialization, wealth accumulation, and social inequality in the United States. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system characterized by large-scale factory production, capital investment, and profit-driven business enterprises that emerged and expanded during the late 19th century. |
| reform movements | Organized efforts by groups of people seeking to improve society by changing laws, institutions, or individual behaviors during the early 19th century. |
| Social Gospel | A reform movement that emphasized applying Christian principles to address social problems such as poverty, labor exploitation, and inequality. |
| socialists | Reformers who advocated for collective or state ownership of the means of production as an alternative to industrial capitalism. |
| utopians | Reformers who envisioned and promoted idealized, alternative social and economic communities based on cooperative principles. |
| voluntary organizations | Groups formed by citizens who joined together voluntarily to promote social and political reform causes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| economic downturns | Periods of reduced economic activity, characterized by declining production, employment, and consumer spending. |
| economic growth | An increase in the total output of goods and services produced by an economy over time. |
| foreign policy | Government strategies and decisions regarding relationships, alliances, and conflicts with other nations. |
| government intervention | Direct action by the government in the economy, such as regulation or spending during economic downturns. |
| laissez-faire policies | Economic policies that minimize government intervention in the economy, allowing free market competition to determine prices and production. |
| markets | Systems of exchange where goods, services, and resources are bought and sold, often targeted by policymakers for economic influence. |
| natural resources | Materials and assets provided by nature, such as land, water, minerals, and forests, that have economic or survival value. |
| Pacific Rim | The region encompassing countries and territories bordering the Pacific Ocean, including East Asia and Oceania, targeted by American businesses for expansion. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agrarian activists | Farmers and rural advocates who organized politically to address economic instability and promote agricultural interests during the Gilded Age. |
| currency issues | Debates over monetary policy and the type of currency backing the American economy that divided political parties during the Gilded Age. |
| economic instability | Periods of economic uncertainty characterized by fluctuating markets, unemployment, and unpredictable business conditions. |
| political corruption | Dishonest or unethical conduct by government officials and politicians. |
| political machines | Political organizations that controlled urban politics by distributing social services and favors to gain power and support from immigrants and the poor. |
| political parties | Organized groups of citizens united by common ideals and goals that compete for political power and influence. |
| Populist Party | A political party created by agrarian activists in the Gilded Age that advocated for stronger government regulation of the American economic system. |
| tariff | A tax imposed on imported goods, a major policy debate in the early republic regarding federal economic power. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| business consolidation | The process of combining multiple companies or business operations into larger, unified entities. |
| citizenship | The legal and political status of belonging to a nation, including rights and responsibilities debated during the Gilded Age. |
| cultural movements | Organized shifts in artistic, intellectual, and social thought that reflected or challenged prevailing values and beliefs. |
| financial panics | Sudden economic crises characterized by loss of confidence in the financial system, bank failures, and economic contraction. |
| Gilded Age | The period from the 1870s to 1900 marked by rapid industrialization, wealth accumulation, and social inequality in the United States. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system characterized by large-scale factory production, capital investment, and profit-driven business enterprises that emerged and expanded during the late 19th century. |
| industrialization | The transformation of an economy from agricultural to manufacturing-based through the development of factories and large-scale production. |
| intellectual movements | Organized developments in philosophy, science, and ideas that shaped how people understood society and the economy. |
| large-scale industrial production | Manufacturing of goods in massive quantities using factories, machinery, and organized labor systems. |
| migration | The movement of people from one region or country to another, often in search of better opportunities or resources. |
| political corruption | Dishonest or unethical conduct by government officials and politicians. |
| political reform | Efforts to change government policies and institutions to address social problems and improve society. |
| systems of production | The organized methods and technologies used to manufacture goods, including factory systems and assembly processes. |
| systems of transportation | Networks of railroads, canals, and roads that moved goods and people across the country to facilitate commerce. |
| technological innovations | New developments and improvements in technology that introduce novel methods, tools, or systems to society. |
| urban culture | The distinctive ways of life, values, and social practices that developed in growing American cities during the late 19th century. |
| urbanization | The process of population concentration in cities and the growth of urban areas as a result of migration and industrial development. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural production | The cultivation and harvesting of crops and livestock for commercial purposes. |
| consolidation in agricultural markets | The process by which agricultural markets became dominated by fewer, larger producers and businesses. |
| cooperative organizations | Farmer-created local and regional associations designed to collectively address market challenges and reduce dependence on external systems. |
| economic growth | An increase in the total output of goods and services produced by an economy over time. |
| government subsidies | Financial support provided by the government to businesses and industries, particularly for transportation and communication systems. |
| mechanization | The use of machines and mechanical processes to replace manual labor in agricultural production. |
| mineral resources | Valuable natural deposits such as gold, silver, and other minerals found in western territories that attracted economic development. |
| settlement of the West | The migration and establishment of communities by settlers in western territories of the United States during the late 19th century. |
| transcontinental railroads | Railroad systems that spanned across the continent, connecting the East and West and facilitating trade and settlement. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American bison population decimated | The near-extinction of buffalo herds through overhunting, which devastated American Indian economies and ways of life. |
| assimilation | Government policies designed to force American Indians to adopt white American culture, language, and ways of life. |
| boomtown | A town that experiences rapid growth and economic development, often due to the discovery of natural resources or arrival of new industries. |
| competition for land and resources | The struggle among white settlers, American Indians, and Mexican Americans for control of western territories and natural resources. |
| farming | Agricultural cultivation of land for crops, a primary economic activity for western settlers. |
| independence | The state of being self-governing and free from the control or influence of others. |
| military force | Armed intervention by the U.S. government to suppress American Indian resistance and enforce government policies. |
| mining | The extraction of valuable minerals and metals from the earth, a major economic activity in the western territories. |
| railroads | Transportation networks supported by legislation and judicial systems that extended markets and linked regions more closely together. |
| ranching | Large-scale livestock raising, particularly cattle and sheep, as an economic activity in the West. |
| reservations | Lands set aside by the U.S. government for American Indian tribes to live on, often smaller and less desirable than original territories. |
| self-sufficiency | The ability to meet one's own needs without depending on external resources or support. |
| self-sustaining economic practices | Economic activities developed by American Indians to support themselves and maintain independence within reservation systems. |
| settlement of the West | The migration and establishment of communities by settlers in western territories of the United States during the late 19th century. |
| sovereignty | The right of American Indian nations to self-govern and make decisions about their own affairs. |
| treaties | Formal agreements between the U.S. government and American Indian nations regarding land, sovereignty, and other matters. |
| tribal identities | The distinct cultural, social, and political characteristics that define individual American Indian nations and communities. |
| violent conflict | Armed confrontations and warfare resulting from competition over western lands and resources. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Jim Crow | A system of racial segregation laws and practices that enforced the separation of Black and white people in the South and other regions. |
| New South | A movement and ideology promoted by Southern leaders in the late 19th century that advocated for industrialization and economic diversification of the Southern economy. |
| Plessy v. Ferguson | An 1896 Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the 'separate but equal' doctrine. |
| Reconstruction | The period from 1865 to 1877 following the Civil War during which the federal government worked to rebuild the South and integrate formerly enslaved people into society. |
| sharecropping | An exploitative agricultural system in which former slaves and poor whites worked land owned by others in exchange for a share of the crop, often leaving them in debt and without true economic independence. |
| tenant farming | An agricultural system in which farmers rented land from landowners and paid rent in cash or crops. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| natural resources | Materials and assets provided by nature, such as land, water, minerals, and forests, that have economic or survival value. |
| production of goods | The manufacturing and creation of products for consumption or trade in the economy. |
| technological innovations | New developments and improvements in technology that introduce novel methods, tools, or systems to society. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Asia | The world's largest continent, from which international migration to the United States increased dramatically after 1980. |
| business consolidation | The process of combining multiple companies or business operations into larger, unified entities. |
| financial and management structures | Organizational systems and frameworks businesses used to organize capital, operations, and decision-making. |
| holding companies | Corporations created to own and control the stock of other companies, allowing centralized management and profit consolidation. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system characterized by large-scale factory production, capital investment, and profit-driven business enterprises that emerged and expanded during the late 19th century. |
| international communication networks | Systems of telegraph, telephone, and other technologies that connected businesses and markets across national borders. |
| labor force | The total number of people available and willing to work in an economy, including both employed and unemployed individuals. |
| large-scale industrial production | Manufacturing of goods in massive quantities using factories, machinery, and organized labor systems. |
| Latin America | The region of the Americas south of the United States, including Central America, South America, and the Caribbean, from which international migration to the U.S. increased dramatically after 1980. |
| marketing | Strategies and techniques used by businesses to promote and sell their products to consumers. |
| natural resources | Materials and assets provided by nature, such as land, water, minerals, and forests, that have economic or survival value. |
| Pacific Rim | The region encompassing countries and territories bordering the Pacific Ocean, including East Asia and Oceania, targeted by American businesses for expansion. |
| pro-growth government policies | Government actions and legislation designed to encourage economic expansion and industrial development. |
| socioeconomic changes | Transformations in social structures and economic conditions resulting from the growth of industrial capitalism between 1865 and 1898. |
| socioeconomic continuities | Aspects of society and the economy that remained relatively unchanged or persistent during the period of industrial growth from 1865 to 1898. |
| technological innovations | New developments and improvements in technology that introduce novel methods, tools, or systems to society. |
| trusts | Business combinations in which competing companies placed their stock under the control of a board of trustees to reduce competition and increase profits. |
| wealth concentration | The accumulation of economic resources and profits in the hands of a small number of business leaders and corporations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| child labor | The employment of children in industrial and other work, often under exploitative conditions and for minimal wages. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system characterized by large-scale factory production, capital investment, and profit-driven business enterprises that emerged and expanded during the late 19th century. |
| industrial workforce | Workers employed in factories and manufacturing industries, which expanded and became more diverse during the Gilded Age through migration. |
| labor unions | Organizations of workers formed to collectively bargain for better wages, working conditions, and other employment benefits. |
| real wages | Worker compensation adjusted for inflation, reflecting the actual purchasing power of earnings over time. |
| standards of living | The level of material comfort and access to goods, services, and amenities available to individuals or groups in a society. |
| wealth gap | The increasing disparity between the income and assets of the wealthy and those of the poor. |
| working conditions | The physical environment, hours, safety standards, and other circumstances under which workers performed their jobs. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| economic growth | An increase in the total output of goods and services produced by an economy over time. |
| ethnic neighborhoods | Urban residential areas populated primarily by people of a particular ethnicity, which provided cultural opportunities and community support for city dwellers. |
| industrial workforce | Workers employed in factories and manufacturing industries, which expanded and became more diverse during the Gilded Age through migration. |
| internal migration | The movement of people within the United States from one region or area to another. |
| international migration | The movement of people from one country to another, often in search of economic opportunity or to escape difficult conditions. |
| migration patterns | The movement of people from one geographic location to another, including the causes and consequences of such movements over time. |
| poverty | The state of lacking sufficient income and resources to meet basic needs, identified as a persistent national problem in postwar America. |
| religious persecution | Discrimination and mistreatment based on religious beliefs, which motivated some immigrants to leave their home countries. |
| social mobility | The ability of individuals to move up or down in social and economic status within a society. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Americanization | The process of adopting American cultural practices, language, and values, often promoted as a goal for immigrants during the Gilded Age. |
| assimilation | Government policies designed to force American Indians to adopt white American culture, language, and ways of life. |
| international migration | The movement of people from one country to another, often in search of economic opportunity or to escape difficult conditions. |
| settlement houses | Community centers established in immigrant neighborhoods to provide social services, education, and assistance with language and cultural adaptation. |
| Social Darwinism | A theory that applied evolutionary concepts to human society, arguing that social inequality and the success of the wealthy were natural and inevitable results of competition. |
| socioeconomic structure | The hierarchical organization of society based on economic status and social class. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American interests | The political, economic, and strategic goals and objectives pursued by the United States in domestic and foreign policy. |
| American liberalism | A political ideology emphasizing government intervention in the economy and society to promote social welfare and individual rights. |
| Axis powers | The alliance of Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and Fascist Italy defeated by the United States and its allies in World War II. |
| economic instability | Periods of economic uncertainty characterized by fluctuating markets, unemployment, and unpredictable business conditions. |
| global leadership | A position of international influence and authority in political, military, and economic affairs. |
| Great Depression | A severe economic crisis in the 1930s characterized by widespread unemployment, falling prices, and reduced consumer spending that had profound effects on the U.S. economy and society. |
| internal migration | The movement of people within the United States from one region or area to another. |
| international migration | The movement of people from one country to another, often in search of economic opportunity or to escape difficult conditions. |
| limited welfare state | A government system that provides social and economic assistance to citizens while maintaining a mixed economy, developed during the New Deal era. |
| mass culture | Standardized cultural products and values produced for and consumed by large populations, particularly through media and entertainment. |
| mass unemployment | Widespread joblessness affecting a large portion of the working population. |
| national security | The protection of a nation's interests, territory, and citizens from external threats. |
| Pacific | The Pacific Ocean region where the United States acquired territories and pursued imperial expansion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. |
| political corruption | Dishonest or unethical conduct by government officials and politicians. |
| Progressive Era | The early 20th century period of American history characterized by reform movements addressing political corruption, economic inequality, and social problems. |
| Progressives | Early 20th century reformers who advocated for greater government action to address political corruption, economic instability, and social concerns. |
| rural, agricultural economy | An economy based primarily on farming and natural resource extraction, characteristic of pre-industrial America. |
| territorial ambitions | American desires to acquire and control territory beyond its continental borders in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. |
| urban, industrial economy | An economy centered on manufacturing and city-based production, led by large corporations and factories. |
| Western Hemisphere | The half of Earth containing North and South America, which became a focus of U.S. foreign policy and influence. |
| world power | A nation with significant global political, military, and economic influence capable of affecting international affairs. |
| World War I | The global conflict (1914-1918) that intensified American debates about the nation's international role and security interests. |
| World War II | The global conflict (1939-1945) in which U.S. participation transformed American society and established the nation as a global superpower. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Great Depression | A severe economic crisis in the 1930s characterized by widespread unemployment, falling prices, and reduced consumer spending that had profound effects on the U.S. economy and society. |
| New Deal | Franklin Roosevelt's program of government policies and agencies designed to provide relief to the poor, stimulate economic recovery, and reform the American economic system during the Great Depression. |
| political realignment | A significant shift in which political party different groups of voters supported, as ethnic groups, African Americans, and working-class communities increasingly identified with the Democratic Party. |
| populist movements | Political movements that appealed to common people and advocated for economic reforms to address the hardships of the Great Depression. |
| radical movements | Political and social movements that advocated for fundamental changes to the American economic and political system during the Great Depression. |
| recovery | Economic improvement and restoration of business activity and employment following the Great Depression. |
| reform | Structural changes to the American economic system and government regulation implemented through New Deal policies. |
| regulatory agencies | Government organizations created during the New Deal to oversee and control specific aspects of the American economy. |
| relief | Government assistance and aid provided to help people in poverty and economic hardship during the Great Depression. |
| union movements | Organized labor efforts by workers seeking better wages, working conditions, and economic security during the 1930s. |
| urbanization | The process of population concentration in cities and the growth of urban areas as a result of migration and industrial development. |
| war production | The manufacturing and supply of military equipment, weapons, and materials needed to support military operations during wartime. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| fascism | An authoritarian political ideology characterized by centralized power, nationalism, and often militarism and suppression of opposition. |
| international investment | The practice of using capital and financial resources to influence economic development and political relationships in other nations. |
| isolationism | A U.S. foreign policy tradition of avoiding political and military involvement in the affairs of other nations. |
| military intervention | The use of armed forces by one nation to influence political or military outcomes in another nation. |
| peace treaties | Formal agreements between nations to end conflicts and establish terms for international relations and cooperation. |
| totalitarianism | A system of government in which the state exercises complete control over all aspects of public and private life. |
| unilateral foreign policy | A foreign policy approach in which a nation acts independently without coordinating with other countries or international organizations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civil liberties | Individual rights and freedoms protected by law, including freedom of speech, religion, and due process. |
| Great Depression | A severe economic crisis in the 1930s characterized by widespread unemployment, falling prices, and reduced consumer spending that had profound effects on the U.S. economy and society. |
| industrial base | A nation's capacity to manufacture goods and weapons, particularly the factories, infrastructure, and workforce needed for production. |
| internment of Japanese Americans | The forced relocation and confinement of Japanese Americans during World War II based on national origin and wartime fears. |
| mass mobilization | The large-scale organization and deployment of a nation's resources, population, and economy to support war efforts. |
| migration | The movement of people from one region or country to another, often in search of better opportunities or resources. |
| racial segregation | The forced separation of people based on race, particularly the legal and social separation of African Americans from white Americans in the United States. |
| socioeconomic positions | A person's or group's social status and economic standing in society, including income, education, and occupation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Allied cooperation | The military and political alliance and coordination between the United States, Soviet Union, Britain, and other nations against the Axis powers. |
| atomic bombs | Nuclear weapons used by the United States against Japan in August 1945 to end World War II in the Pacific. |
| Axis powers | The alliance of Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and Fascist Italy defeated by the United States and its allies in World War II. |
| D-Day invasion | The Allied amphibious invasion of Normandy, France on June 6, 1944, which opened the Western Front against Nazi Germany. |
| fascist | An authoritarian political ideology characterized by extreme nationalism, militarism, and centralized autocratic government, opposed to democracy and individual freedoms. |
| Holocaust | The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators during World War II. |
| island-hopping | A military strategy used by the United States in the Pacific War involving the selective capture of strategically important islands while bypassing others to advance toward Japan. |
| Japanese wartime atrocities | Brutal acts and war crimes committed by Japanese forces during World War II against civilians and prisoners of war. |
| militarist | An ideology that emphasizes military strength, military solutions to political problems, and the glorification of military power and warfare. |
| Nazi concentration camps | Prison camps established by Nazi Germany to imprison and systematically murder millions of people, particularly Jews and other groups deemed undesirable. |
| racial segregation | The forced separation of people based on race, particularly the legal and social separation of African Americans from white Americans in the United States. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Allied victory | The successful conclusion of World War II by the Allied powers, including the United States, Soviet Union, and Great Britain, over the Axis powers. |
| postwar peace settlements | The diplomatic agreements and treaties negotiated after World War II to establish new international order and resolve territorial and political issues. |
| war-ravaged | Describing regions, particularly Asia and Europe, that were severely damaged and devastated by the destruction and violence of World War II. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American identity | The shared characteristics, values, and sense of belonging that define what it means to be American, shaped by historical events and cultural developments. |
| American interests | The political, economic, and strategic goals and objectives pursued by the United States in domestic and foreign policy. |
| American liberalism | A political ideology emphasizing government intervention in the economy and society to promote social welfare and individual rights. |
| Axis powers | The alliance of Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and Fascist Italy defeated by the United States and its allies in World War II. |
| global, political, and military leadership | The position of international dominance and influence achieved by the United States following World War II. |
| Great Depression | A severe economic crisis in the 1930s characterized by widespread unemployment, falling prices, and reduced consumer spending that had profound effects on the U.S. economy and society. |
| internal migration | The movement of people within the United States from one region or area to another. |
| international migration | The movement of people from one country to another, often in search of economic opportunity or to escape difficult conditions. |
| limited welfare state | A government system that provides social and economic assistance to citizens while maintaining a mixed economy, developed during the New Deal era. |
| mass culture | Standardized cultural products and values produced for and consumed by large populations, particularly through media and entertainment. |
| national security | The protection of a nation's interests, territory, and citizens from external threats. |
| Pacific | The Pacific Ocean region where the United States acquired territories and pursued imperial expansion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. |
| Progressive Era | The early 20th century period of American history characterized by reform movements addressing political corruption, economic inequality, and social problems. |
| Progressives | Early 20th century reformers who advocated for greater government action to address political corruption, economic instability, and social concerns. |
| rural, agricultural economy | An economy based primarily on farming and natural resource extraction, characteristic of pre-industrial America. |
| territorial ambitions | American desires to acquire and control territory beyond its continental borders in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. |
| urban, industrial economy | An economy centered on manufacturing and city-based production, led by large corporations and factories. |
| Western Hemisphere | The half of Earth containing North and South America, which became a focus of U.S. foreign policy and influence. |
| World War I | The global conflict (1914-1918) that intensified American debates about the nation's international role and security interests. |
| World War II | The global conflict (1939-1945) in which U.S. participation transformed American society and established the nation as a global superpower. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anti-imperialists | Opponents of American overseas territorial expansion who argued against extending U.S. territory beyond its continental borders. |
| competition with European empires | The rivalry between the United States and European powers for global influence, territory, and resources in the late 19th century. |
| economic opportunities | Prospects for financial gain and prosperity that motivated settlers to migrate westward, including farming, mining, and trade. |
| imperialists | Advocates who supported American expansion of territory, culture, and institutions to peoples around the globe in the late 19th century. |
| isolationism | A U.S. foreign policy tradition of avoiding political and military involvement in the affairs of other nations. |
| racial theories | Pseudo-scientific ideologies used to justify both imperialist expansion and anti-imperialist resistance during the late 19th century. |
| self-determination | The principle that peoples have the right to determine their own political status and form of government without external interference. |
| Western frontier | The expanding boundary of American settlement and territorial control that was perceived as 'closed' by the 1890s. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| involvement in Asia | Increased American political, military, and economic engagement in Asian affairs following the Spanish-American War. |
| island territories | Overseas possessions acquired by the United States, including lands in the Caribbean and Pacific regions. |
| nationalist movement | A political movement seeking independence or self-determination for a particular nation or people, such as the Filipino independence movement. |
| Spanish-American War | A conflict in 1898 between the United States and Spain that resulted in American victory and territorial expansion. |
| U.S. acquisition | The process by which the United States obtained control of new territories as a result of the Spanish-American War. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| conservationists | Advocates who supported the sustainable and efficient use of natural resources through scientific management and government regulation. |
| economic inequality | The unequal distribution of income and wealth among individuals and groups in society. |
| expand democracy | Progressive efforts to increase popular participation in government through reforms like direct primaries and recall elections. |
| federal legislation | Laws passed by Congress at the national level to implement government policies and programs. |
| immigration restriction | Policies limiting immigration that some Progressives supported, reflecting divisions within the movement. |
| moral reform | Progressive efforts to address social problems and improve public morality through legislation and social change. |
| muckraking | Investigative journalism practiced by Progressive Era journalists who exposed political corruption, social injustice, and economic inequality. |
| national parks | Protected areas of land established and managed by the government to preserve natural landscapes and resources for public benefit. |
| overuse of natural resources | The excessive exploitation and depletion of natural resources beyond sustainable levels, a concern addressed by both preservationists and conservationists. |
| political corruption | Dishonest or unethical conduct by government officials and politicians. |
| popular participation in government | Direct involvement of citizens in democratic processes, which some Progressives advocated to expand through reforms. |
| preservationists | Advocates who sought to protect natural resources and wilderness areas from development and human use by preserving them in their natural state. |
| professional and technical experts | Specialists and trained professionals whom some Progressives believed should make government decisions to increase efficiency. |
| Progressive reform movement | An early 20th-century movement seeking to address political corruption, social injustice, and economic inequality through various reforms at local, state, and federal levels. |
| prohibition | A Progressive constitutional amendment banning the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages. |
| regulate the economy | Government intervention through laws and policies to control business practices and prevent monopolies, a key Progressive goal. |
| social injustice | Unfair or unequal treatment of individuals or groups in society, which Progressives sought to address through reform. |
| women's suffrage | A Progressive constitutional amendment granting women the right to vote in elections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Allies | The coalition of nations including Britain, France, and Russia that fought against the Central Powers in World War I, which the U.S. supported through its entry into the war. |
| American Expeditionary Forces | The U.S. military forces sent to Europe during World War I, whose entry helped shift the balance of the conflict in favor of the Allies. |
| democratic principles | Values based on democratic governance and self-determination that Wilson argued the U.S. should defend by entering World War I. |
| humanitarian principles | Values centered on human welfare and the protection of human rights, which Woodrow Wilson cited as justification for U.S. entry into World War I. |
| League of Nations | An international organization proposed after World War I to maintain peace, which the U.S. Senate refused to allow the United States to join. |
| neutrality | The policy of not taking sides in a conflict or war, which the United States initially maintained at the beginning of World War I. |
| noninvolvement | A U.S. foreign policy tradition of avoiding military and political entanglement in European affairs. |
| Treaty of Versailles | The peace treaty ending World War I that the U.S. Senate refused to ratify, despite Wilson's involvement in its negotiation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Great Migration | The large-scale movement of African Americans from the rural South to urban centers in the North and West during and after World War I in search of economic opportunity and to escape racial discrimination. |
| immigration quotas | Legal limits on the number of immigrants allowed to enter a country, often based on national origin or ethnicity. |
| labor activism | Organized efforts by workers to advocate for better working conditions, wages, and rights through strikes, unions, and other collective actions. |
| migration patterns | The movement of people from one geographic location to another, including the causes and consequences of such movements over time. |
| nativism | A political movement that favors native-born citizens over immigrants and seeks to restrict immigration and immigrant rights. |
| Red Scare | A period of intense anti-communist fear and suspicion in the United States, characterized by investigations, accusations, and policies targeting suspected communists. |
| segregation | The forced separation of people based on race, enforced through laws and social practices, particularly in the American South. |
| war production | The manufacturing and supply of military equipment, weapons, and materials needed to support military operations during wartime. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| consumer goods | Products manufactured for purchase and use by individual consumers rather than for business or industrial purposes. |
| mass media | Forms of communication and entertainment designed to reach large audiences, such as radio and cinema. |
| national culture | Shared beliefs, values, customs, and practices that Americans developed to define themselves as a unified nation during the early 19th century. |
| personal mobility | The ability of individuals to move freely and travel from place to place, often enabled by technological innovations like automobiles. |
| regional cultures | Distinct cultural practices, traditions, and identities specific to particular geographic areas or regions within a nation. |
| standards of living | The level of material comfort and access to goods, services, and amenities available to individuals or groups in a society. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| ethnic groups | Communities of people who share a common cultural heritage, ancestry, or national origin. |
| ethnic identities | The cultural, social, and personal identities associated with a particular ethnic or national group, including shared traditions, heritage, and values. |
| gender roles | Socially defined expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female in a particular society. |
| Harlem Renaissance | A cultural and intellectual movement in the 1920s centered in Harlem, New York, where African American artists, writers, and musicians created new forms of art and literature expressing Black identity and experience. |
| immigration quotas | Legal limits on the number of immigrants allowed to enter a country, often based on national origin or ethnicity. |
| internal migration | The movement of people within the United States from one region or area to another. |
| international migration | The movement of people from one country to another, often in search of economic opportunity or to escape difficult conditions. |
| modernism | A cultural and artistic movement that rejected traditional forms and values, embracing new experimental styles in art, literature, and thought. |
| nativism | A political movement that favors native-born citizens over immigrants and seeks to restrict immigration and immigrant rights. |
| popular culture | Forms of entertainment, art, and cultural expression that appeal to and are created by the general public, including music, literature, film, and fashion. |
| regional identities | The cultural and social characteristics that distinguish different geographic regions and their populations. |
| urban centers | Cities and metropolitan areas that serve as centers of economic, social, and cultural activity. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American liberalism | A political ideology emphasizing government intervention in the economy and society to promote social welfare and individual rights. |
| credit instability | Periods of uncertainty and volatility in the availability and terms of borrowed money in the financial system. |
| financial regulatory system | Government institutions and rules designed to oversee and control banking and financial markets to prevent crises. |
| Great Depression | A severe economic crisis in the 1930s characterized by widespread unemployment, falling prices, and reduced consumer spending that had profound effects on the U.S. economy and society. |
| industrial economy | An economy based on manufacturing and large-scale production of goods by factories and corporations. |
| market instability | Periods of significant fluctuation and uncertainty in stock prices and financial markets. |
| mass unemployment | Widespread joblessness affecting a large portion of the working population. |
| rural economy | An economy centered on farming and the production of crops and livestock. |
| urban economy | An economy based in cities and centered on industrial and commercial activities. |
| welfare state | A system in which the government provides social and economic support programs to its citizens. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civil liberties | Individual rights and freedoms protected by law, including freedom of speech, religion, and due process. |
| civil rights | The movement and legal efforts to secure equal rights and protections for African Americans and other marginalized groups, particularly regarding ending segregation and discrimination. |
| Cold War | The prolonged period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, characterized by ideological conflict, nuclear arms race, and proxy wars, but without direct military confrontation between the superpowers. |
| Communist | An ideology and political system based on collective ownership of property and centralized control of the economy, associated with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. |
| conservatism | A political ideology emphasizing limited government, traditional values, and resistance to rapid social change, which resurgent in the postwar period. |
| free-market global economy | An international economic system based on capitalism and open trade that the United States promoted as an alternative to communist economic models. |
| international security system | Institutions and agreements established after World War II to maintain peace and collective defense, including organizations like NATO and the United Nations. |
| liberalism | A political ideology emphasizing individual rights, democratic governance, and an expanded role for government in addressing social and economic problems. |
| postwar | The period following World War II, from 1945 onward, characterized by American global leadership and significant domestic social and economic changes. |
| Reconstruction-era promises | The unfulfilled commitments made during Reconstruction (1865-1877) to provide equality and rights to formerly enslaved African Americans. |
| segregation | The forced separation of people based on race, enforced through laws and social practices, particularly in the American South. |
| social justice | The pursuit of fair treatment and equal rights for all people, particularly regarding issues of identity, discrimination, and systemic inequality. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civil rights | The movement and legal efforts to secure equal rights and protections for African Americans and other marginalized groups, particularly regarding ending segregation and discrimination. |
| Civil Rights Act of 1964 | Federal legislation that prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in public accommodations, employment, and other areas. |
| desegregation | The process of ending the forced separation of racial groups in public institutions, schools, and facilities. |
| direct action | Confrontational protest tactics such as sit-ins, marches, and demonstrations used to challenge discriminatory practices and laws. |
| individual liberties | Fundamental freedoms and rights guaranteed to individuals, such as freedom of speech, religion, and due process. |
| legal challenges | Court cases and lawsuits used to contest discriminatory laws and practices and establish legal precedents for civil rights. |
| nonviolent protest | A philosophy and strategy of achieving social and political change through peaceful means rather than force or violence. |
| racial discrimination | The unjust treatment of individuals or groups based on their race, often resulting in denial of rights, opportunities, or equal treatment. |
| racial equality | The principle that all individuals should have equal rights, opportunities, and treatment regardless of race. |
| social and political unrest | Widespread disorder and discontent arising from social tensions and political conflicts within society. |
| Supreme Court decisions | Rulings by the highest federal court that interpret the Constitution and establish legal precedents affecting civil rights and liberties. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Indian movements | Organized efforts by Native Americans to achieve social and economic equality and address historical injustices. |
| Asian American movements | Organized efforts by Asian Americans to achieve social and economic equality and address historical injustices. |
| civil rights | The movement and legal efforts to secure equal rights and protections for African Americans and other marginalized groups, particularly regarding ending segregation and discrimination. |
| counterculture | A social movement of the 1960s in which young people rejected mainstream values and norms of their parents' generation, advocating alternative lifestyles and social change. |
| Feminist movements | Organized efforts by women to achieve legal, economic, and social equality. |
| Latino movements | Organized efforts by Latino/Hispanic Americans to achieve social and economic equality and address historical injustices. |
| LGBTQ+ activism | Organized efforts by lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer individuals to achieve legal, economic, and social equality. |
| redress of past injustices | Efforts to address and remedy historical wrongs and discrimination experienced by marginalized groups. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anti-communist foreign policy | U.S. diplomatic and military strategies designed to oppose the spread of communism globally during the Cold War. |
| anti-war protests | Organized demonstrations and activism opposing U.S. military involvement in the Vietnam War. |
| counterculture | A social movement of the 1960s in which young people rejected mainstream values and norms of their parents' generation, advocating alternative lifestyles and social change. |
| liberal policies | Government programs and approaches associated with the Democratic Party and progressive reform that some leftist groups criticized as insufficient in addressing racial and economic inequality. |
| racial and economic status quo | The existing systems of racial segregation and economic inequality that some groups sought to transform during the 1960s. |
| sexual norms | Societal expectations and standards regarding sexual behavior and relationships that the counterculture challenged and sought to change. |
| Vietnam War | The prolonged conflict in Southeast Asia (1955-1975) between North Vietnam and South Vietnam, with significant U.S. military involvement that became a major source of domestic opposition. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| environmental movement | A social and political movement from the 1960s-1980s that advocated for legislative action and public awareness to address pollution and protect natural resources. |
| environmental programs | Federal initiatives and agencies established by the government to address environmental problems and implement environmental protection policies. |
| environmental regulations | Federal rules and standards established to control pollution, protect natural resources, and ensure environmental protection. |
| national energy policy | A comprehensive government strategy developed in response to oil crises to address energy production, consumption, and security concerns. |
| natural resources | Materials and assets provided by nature, such as land, water, minerals, and forests, that have economic or survival value. |
| oil crises | Periods of severe disruption in oil supply and availability in the Middle East that affected U.S. energy security and prompted policy responses. |
| pollution | The contamination of air, water, and land by harmful substances, which became a major focus of the environmental movement. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| conservatives | Political actors who sought to limit the role of the federal government and maintain traditional values, particularly prominent in the 1960s and 1970s. |
| evangelical Christian churches | Protestant Christian organizations and congregations emphasizing personal conversion experiences and the authority of the Bible, which experienced rapid growth in the 20th century. |
| federal government | The central national government of the United States with authority over the states. |
| foreign policy | Government strategies and decisions regarding relationships, alliances, and conflicts with other nations. |
| individual rights | Freedoms and protections guaranteed to citizens, often the subject of political debate and social movements. |
| liberals | Political actors who generally supported an expanded role for the federal government in addressing social and economic problems. |
| political scandals | Incidents involving government officials that damage public trust and confidence in government institutions. |
| public confidence | The level of trust and belief citizens hold in government institutions and their ability to function effectively. |
| religious conservatives | Individuals who advocate for traditional religious values and beliefs, and who became increasingly active in political and social movements during the 20th century. |
| religious movements | Organized groups or trends centered on religious beliefs and practices that gain followers and influence over time. |
| social and economic problems | Issues affecting society and the economy that governments attempt to address through policy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civil liberties | Individual rights and freedoms protected by law, including freedom of speech, religion, and due process. |
| civil rights | The movement and legal efforts to secure equal rights and protections for African Americans and other marginalized groups, particularly regarding ending segregation and discrimination. |
| Cold War | The prolonged period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, characterized by ideological conflict, nuclear arms race, and proxy wars, but without direct military confrontation between the superpowers. |
| Communist | An ideology and political system based on collective ownership of property and centralized control of the economy, associated with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. |
| conservatism | A political ideology emphasizing limited government, traditional values, and resistance to rapid social change, which resurgent in the postwar period. |
| demographic changes | Shifts in the composition of a population, including changes in size, age distribution, migration patterns, and social characteristics. |
| free-market global economy | An international economic system based on capitalism and open trade that the United States promoted as an alternative to communist economic models. |
| liberalism | A political ideology emphasizing individual rights, democratic governance, and an expanded role for government in addressing social and economic problems. |
| national identity | A shared sense of belonging and common characteristics that define a nation and its people, distinct from colonial or regional identities. |
| racial equality | The principle that all individuals should have equal rights, opportunities, and treatment regardless of race. |
| segregation | The forced separation of people based on race, enforced through laws and social practices, particularly in the American South. |
| social justice | The pursuit of fair treatment and equal rights for all people, particularly regarding issues of identity, discrimination, and systemic inequality. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| changes | Transformations or alterations in conditions, experiences, or circumstances over a period of time. |
| Cold War policies | The diplomatic, military, and economic strategies employed by the United States and Soviet Union to advance their interests without direct armed conflict between the two superpowers. |
| collective security | A foreign policy approach in which multiple nations agree to defend each other against aggression, used by the United States to strengthen non-Communist nations. |
| Communist ideology | The political and economic beliefs of communism that the United States sought to limit during the Cold War. |
| containment | The U.S. foreign policy strategy of preventing the spread of communism to new territories or nations during the Cold War. |
| continuities | Elements, patterns, or conditions that remained consistent or unchanged over a period of time. |
| détente | A period of reduced tension and improved relations between the United States and Soviet Union characterized by mutual coexistence and diplomatic cooperation. |
| economic institutions | International organizations and systems created to promote free-market economies and economic cooperation among non-Communist nations. |
| international aid | Economic and military assistance provided by the United States to foreign nations to support their development and strengthen their resistance to communism. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| communism | A political and economic ideology based on collective or state ownership of property and the elimination of social classes, viewed as a threat by many Americans during the Cold War. |
| containment | The U.S. foreign policy strategy of preventing the spread of communism to new territories or nations during the Cold War. |
| Red Scare | A period of intense anti-communist fear and suspicion in the United States, characterized by investigations, accusations, and policies targeting suspected communists. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| baby boom | The significant increase in birth rates in the United States following World War II, lasting roughly from 1946 to 1964. |
| economic growth | An increase in the total output of goods and services produced by an economy over time. |
| federal spending | Government expenditures by the federal government on programs, infrastructure, defense, and other initiatives. |
| migration | The movement of people from one region or country to another, often in search of better opportunities or resources. |
| private sector | The part of the economy run by private individuals and businesses rather than by the government. |
| social mobility | The ability of individuals to move up or down in social and economic status within a society. |
| suburbs | Residential areas on the outskirts of cities, characterized by lower population density and single-family homes, which experienced significant growth after 1945. |
| Sun Belt | The region of the southern and southwestern United States that experienced rapid economic growth and population migration after 1945, becoming a major political and economic force. |
| technological developments | Advances in technology and innovation that improve productivity and create new industries and consumer products. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| conformity | Adherence to established social norms, values, and behaviors; in postwar culture, the pressure to adopt standardized ways of thinking and living. |
| homogeneous | Uniform or similar in character, composition, or nature; in the context of postwar culture, referring to the standardization and similarity of cultural expression. |
| mass culture | Standardized cultural products and values produced for and consumed by large populations, particularly through media and entertainment. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Brown v. Board of Education | A landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. |
| civil rights movements | Organized efforts by groups seeking to secure equal rights and end discrimination based on race, particularly in the United States during the mid-20th century. |
| desegregation | The process of ending the forced separation of racial groups in public institutions, schools, and facilities. |
| desegregation of the armed services | The federal policy that ended racial segregation in the U.S. military, allowing African Americans to serve in integrated units. |
| racial equality | The principle that all individuals should have equal rights, opportunities, and treatment regardless of race. |
| segregation | The forced separation of people based on race, enforced through laws and social practices, particularly in the American South. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cold War competition | The ideological, political, and military rivalry between the United States and Soviet Union that extended into various regions including Latin America. |
| decolonization | The process by which former colonial territories gained independence from European and other imperial powers, particularly in Asia and Africa after World War II. |
| military–industrial complex | The interconnected relationship between the military establishment and defense industries that influences government policy and spending decisions. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements in newly independent nations that sought to establish national identity and sovereignty, often becoming focal points in Cold War competition for allies. |
| non-Communist regimes | Governments supported by the United States during the Cold War that opposed communist ideology, regardless of their commitment to democratic principles. |
| nonaligned | Nations that refused to formally align with either the United States or the Soviet Union during the Cold War, instead pursuing independent foreign policies. |
| nuclear arsenal | A country's stockpile of nuclear weapons; a major point of debate during the Cold War regarding military strategy and deterrence. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cold War | The prolonged period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, characterized by ideological conflict, nuclear arms race, and proxy wars, but without direct military confrontation between the superpowers. |
| communism | A political and economic ideology based on collective or state ownership of property and the elimination of social classes, viewed as a threat by many Americans during the Cold War. |
| containment | The U.S. foreign policy strategy of preventing the spread of communism to new territories or nations during the Cold War. |
| decolonization | The process by which former colonial territories gained independence from European and other imperial powers, particularly in Asia and Africa after World War II. |
| executive power | The authority of the president to conduct foreign and military policy, which became a subject of debate regarding appropriate limits on presidential decision-making. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements in newly independent nations that sought to establish national identity and sovereignty, often becoming focal points in Cold War competition for allies. |
| nonaligned | Nations that refused to formally align with either the United States or the Soviet Union during the Cold War, instead pursuing independent foreign policies. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anti-communism | Opposition to communist ideology and Soviet expansion, a central principle of mid-20th century American foreign policy. |
| federal government | The central national government of the United States with authority over the states. |
| federal legislation | Laws passed by Congress at the national level to implement government policies and programs. |
| Great Society | Lyndon Johnson's domestic program that used federal legislation and programs to address racial discrimination, poverty, and other social issues in the 1960s. |
| immigration laws | Federal legislation that regulates who can enter and settle in the United States, including restrictions, quotas, and eligibility requirements. |
| immigration patterns | The trends and characteristics of who immigrates to a country, including their origins, timing, and reasons for migration, which change over historical periods. |
| liberalism | A political ideology emphasizing individual rights, democratic governance, and an expanded role for government in addressing social and economic problems. |
| policy debates | Ongoing political discussions and disagreements about government decisions and their implementation. |
| poverty | The state of lacking sufficient income and resources to meet basic needs, identified as a persistent national problem in postwar America. |
| racial discrimination | The unjust treatment of individuals or groups based on their race, often resulting in denial of rights, opportunities, or equal treatment. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cold War | The prolonged period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, characterized by ideological conflict, nuclear arms race, and proxy wars, but without direct military confrontation between the superpowers. |
| conservative movement | A political movement after 1980 that emphasized traditional social values and a reduced role for government in American society. |
| demographic shifts | Significant changes in the size, composition, and distribution of American Indian populations caused by disease and other factors. |
| interventionist foreign policy | A foreign policy approach involving active U.S. military or political involvement in other nations' affairs, promoted by the Reagan administration. |
| manufacturing decline | The decrease in manufacturing production in the United States during the late 20th and early 21st centuries as the economy transformed. |
| terrorism | The use of violence and intimidation to achieve political goals, which became a major focus of U.S. foreign policy after September 11, 2001. |
| traditional social values | Established cultural and moral principles emphasizing family, religion, and conventional social structures. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| conservative beliefs | Political and social values emphasizing traditional institutions, limited government, and individual responsibility. |
| deregulation | The removal or reduction of government rules and restrictions on business and industry. |
| diversity | The presence of people from different racial, ethnic, religious, and cultural backgrounds in society. |
| economic growth | An increase in the total output of goods and services produced by an economy over time. |
| family structures | The organization and relationships within families, including kinship bonds that African Americans worked to maintain and protect. |
| federal government | The central national government of the United States with authority over the states. |
| financial system reform | Proposed changes to the structure and regulation of banks, markets, and other institutions that manage money and credit. |
| free-trade agreements | International treaties that reduce tariffs and trade barriers between countries to promote commerce. |
| gender roles | Socially defined expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female in a particular society. |
| immigration policy | Government rules and regulations governing the entry, residence, and rights of foreign nationals in the United States. |
| liberal programs | Government social welfare and assistance initiatives typically supported by progressive political movements. |
| policy debates | Ongoing political discussions and disagreements about government decisions and their implementation. |
| size and scope of government | The extent of government's involvement in the economy and society, including the number and reach of its programs and agencies. |
| social safety net | Government programs designed to provide economic assistance and protection to individuals in need, such as welfare and Social Security. |
| tax cuts | Reductions in the amount of taxes that individuals or businesses are required to pay to the government. |
| traditional social values | Established cultural and moral principles emphasizing family, religion, and conventional social structures. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cold War | The prolonged period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, characterized by ideological conflict, nuclear arms race, and proxy wars, but without direct military confrontation between the superpowers. |
| communism | A political and economic ideology based on collective or state ownership of property and the elimination of social classes, viewed as a threat by many Americans during the Cold War. |
| diplomatic initiatives | Official efforts by the U.S. government to establish relationships and negotiate agreements with foreign powers. |
| Eastern Europe | The region of Europe under Soviet influence and control during the Cold War, including countries such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and East Germany. |
| military interventions | Direct military actions taken by one nation in the affairs of another nation, typically to influence political outcomes or protect interests. |
| nuclear weapons buildup | The rapid increase in the production and stockpiling of nuclear weapons and delivery systems by the United States and Soviet Union during the Cold War. |
| peacekeeping interventions | Military or diplomatic actions undertaken by the United States or international organizations to maintain peace and prevent conflict in regions of instability. |
| Soviet Union | The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the communist superpower that was the primary adversary of the United States during the Cold War. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| computing | The technology and processes involving computers and computational systems for processing information and performing calculations. |
| digital communications | Technologies and systems that enable information exchange through electronic means, including the internet and related digital platforms. |
| digital mobile technology | Portable electronic devices and systems, such as smartphones and tablets, that enable digital communication and information access. |
| economic inequality | The unequal distribution of income and wealth among individuals and groups in society. |
| economic productivity | The effectiveness of effort measured by the rate of output per unit of input, particularly in the context of economic growth and efficiency. |
| internet | A global system of interconnected computer networks that enables communication and information sharing worldwide. |
| manufacturing | The production of goods in factories using industrial methods, which became a major driver of economic growth in the Northern United States. |
| real wages | Worker compensation adjusted for inflation, reflecting the actual purchasing power of earnings over time. |
| service sectors | Industries that provide services to consumers and businesses rather than producing physical goods, such as retail, healthcare, and finance. |
| technological innovations | New developments and improvements in technology that introduce novel methods, tools, or systems to society. |
| union membership | Participation in labor unions, organizations that represent workers' interests in negotiations with employers. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American South | The region of the United States comprising the southeastern states, which experienced significant population growth and increased political and cultural influence after 1980. |
| American West | The region of the United States comprising the western states, which experienced significant population growth and increased political and cultural influence after 1980. |
| Asia | The world's largest continent, from which international migration to the United States increased dramatically after 1980. |
| domestic migration | The movement of large numbers of people from one geographic region to another, changing the demographic distribution of a country. |
| international migration | The movement of people from one country to another, often in search of economic opportunity or to escape difficult conditions. |
| labor force | The total number of people available and willing to work in an economy, including both employed and unemployed individuals. |
| Latin America | The region of the Americas south of the United States, including Central America, South America, and the Caribbean, from which international migration to the U.S. increased dramatically after 1980. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Afghanistan | A country in Central Asia where the United States launched military operations beginning in 2001 to pursue terrorists and remove the Taliban from power. |
| civil liberties | Individual rights and freedoms protected by law, including freedom of speech, religion, and due process. |
| climate change | Long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather patterns, primarily caused by human activities such as burning fossil fuels. |
| fossil fuels | Energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that release carbon dioxide when burned. |
| human rights | Universal fundamental rights and dignities owed to all people, including freedom from torture and arbitrary detention. |
| Iraq | A country in the Middle East where the United States engaged in a lengthy military conflict beginning in 2003. |
| Pentagon | The headquarters of the U.S. Department of Defense in Washington, D.C., which was attacked by terrorists on September 11, 2001. |
| superpower | A nation with the military, economic, and political power to influence global affairs and project power worldwide. |
| War on Terror | U.S. foreign policy efforts focused on fighting terrorism around the world following the September 11, 2001 attacks. |
| World Trade Center | The twin office towers in New York City that were destroyed in terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, killing nearly 3,000 people. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American national identity | The collective sense of who Americans are as a nation, shaped by political, cultural, economic, and social changes. |
| Cold War | The prolonged period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, characterized by ideological conflict, nuclear arms race, and proxy wars, but without direct military confrontation between the superpowers. |
| conservative movement | A political movement after 1980 that emphasized traditional social values and a reduced role for government in American society. |
| demographic shifts | Significant changes in the size, composition, and distribution of American Indian populations caused by disease and other factors. |
| interventionist foreign policy | A foreign policy approach involving active U.S. military or political involvement in other nations' affairs, promoted by the Reagan administration. |
| manufacturing | The production of goods in factories using industrial methods, which became a major driver of economic growth in the Northern United States. |
| traditional social values | Established cultural and moral principles emphasizing family, religion, and conventional social structures. |
| War on Terror | U.S. foreign policy efforts focused on fighting terrorism around the world following the September 11, 2001 attacks. |
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