The Development of a Colonial Identity
By the mid-18th century, colonial America had developed a complex cultural identity that balanced European influences with distinctly American experiences. While British cultural traditions remained strong, especially in coastal cities, the diverse European immigrants, religious movements, and frontier experiences created societies that were increasingly different from those in Europe. This evolving colonial identity would provide the foundation for later revolutionary ideals.
Pluralism and Cultural Exchange
The presence of different European religious and ethnic groups contributed significantly to colonial pluralism and intellectual exchange. These diverse influences would be further enhanced by the First Great Awakening and the spread of European Enlightenment ideas.
✋🏻 ✋🏼 ✋🏽 Ethnic Diversity
Colonial America became increasingly diverse through continued immigration from various European regions. While initially dominated by English settlers, by 1755 nearly half the white population came from other backgrounds:
Colonial society reflected this diversity in its languages, religious practices, architectural styles, and cultural traditions. Germans established tight-knit communities in Pennsylvania, maintaining their language and customs. Scots-Irish settlers pushed into the frontier regions, bringing distinctive music, storytelling traditions, and a fierce independence that would shape backcountry culture.
⛪ Religious Pluralism and the Great Awakening
Religious diversity characterized the colonies despite the presence of established churches in many regions. The religious landscape included:
- Congregational Churches dominant in New England (tax-supported)
- Anglican Church established in most southern colonies
- Quakers prominent in Pennsylvania and parts of New Jersey
- Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist communities growing throughout the colonies
- Small but significant Catholic communities, especially in Maryland
- Jewish congregations in port cities like New York and Newport
The First Great Awakening of the 1730s-40s transformed this religious landscape. Dynamic preachers like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield traveled throughout the colonies, delivering emotional sermons that emphasized personal conversion. Edwards' famous "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" sermon exemplified this approach, using vivid imagery to inspire religious fear and devotion.
The revival movement had profound effects beyond religion:
- Created new Protestant denominations and divided existing ones
- Challenged established religious authorities and traditional hierarchies
- Promoted ideas about spiritual equality that shaped political thinking
- Encouraged literacy as believers studied scripture independently
- Connected colonies through common religious experiences
- Provided leadership opportunities for common people as new preachers emerged
🔭 Enlightenment Influences
Alongside religious revival, European Enlightenment ideas spread through colonial society. Colonial thinkers embraced concepts like:
- Rational thinking and scientific inquiry over tradition
- Natural rights and political liberty
- Skepticism toward established authority
- Ideas about social progress and improvement
These ideas found expression in growing colonial print culture, philosophical societies, and educational institutions. Benjamin Franklin exemplified Enlightenment thinking through his scientific experiments, practical inventions, and civic improvements in Philadelphia.
Comparison of Cultural Influences in Colonial Regions
| Cultural Aspect | New England | Middle Colonies | Southern Colonies |
|---|---|---|---|
| Religious Influence | Puritan/Congregational dominance; Great Awakening highly influential | Greatest religious diversity; Quaker influence in Pennsylvania | Anglican establishment; evangelical movements growing in backcountry |
| Ethnic Composition | Predominantly English with some Scots-Irish | Most diverse region: English, Dutch, German, Scots-Irish, Swedish | Primarily English with Scots-Irish in frontier areas |
| Social Structure | Community-centered, less rigid hierarchy | Mixed social order, growing middle class | Most hierarchical, plantation gentry dominated |
| Education/Literacy | Highest literacy rates; town schools common | Mixed educational systems; religious schools | Limited public education; tutors for wealthy |
| Political Culture | Town meetings, participatory traditions | Mixed systems, proprietary influences | County-based, dominated by landed gentry |
| Print Culture | Strong tradition of pamphlets, newspapers | Growing printing centers in Philadelphia and New York | Limited outside major towns |
Anglicization and the Development of Colonial Autonomy
The British colonies experienced a gradual Anglicization over time while simultaneously developing autonomous political communities with distinctive American characteristics.
British cultural influence remained strong, especially in coastal cities and among elites. Colonial merchants and wealthy planters often:
- Built homes following English architectural patterns
- Imported English furniture, dishware, and textiles
- Followed English fashion trends and social customs
- Sent their sons to England for education
- Read English literature and newspapers
This Anglicization accelerated in the early 18th century as colonial prosperity increased and trade connections strengthened. However, even as colonists adopted British goods and cultural practices, they were developing autonomous communities based on:
- Intercolonial Commercial Ties: Trade networks connected colonial ports and agricultural regions, creating economic relationships independent of British oversight.
- Transatlantic Print Culture: Growing literacy rates and local printing presses spread ideas throughout the colonies, fostering a shared colonial discourse on political and social issues.
- Adapted Political Structures: While modeled on British forms, colonial governments evolved to meet local needs:
- Colonial assemblies gained increasing control over taxation and spending
- Local political institutions like town meetings provided extensive self-governance
- Distance from Britain necessitated practical autonomy in day-to-day governance
Growing Tensions with Britain
By the mid-18th century, the goals and interests of European leaders and colonists increasingly diverged, leading to growing mistrust on both sides of the Atlantic.
Sources of Colonial Dissatisfaction
Colonists expressed increasing dissatisfaction over several key issues:
- Territorial settlements: British authorities restricted western expansion through measures like the Proclamation Line of 1763, frustrating land-hungry colonists.
- Frontier defense: Disagreements arose over who should bear the costs of protecting frontier settlements from Native American resistance and European rivals.
- Self-rule: Colonial assemblies sought greater autonomy while British authorities attempted to reassert control, creating constitutional tensions.
- Trade restrictions: Mercantilist policies like the Navigation Acts limited colonial economic opportunities and created resentment, though enforcement was often lax under "salutary neglect."
Key Conflicts
Several conflicts illustrated the growing tensions between colonial and imperial visions:
- When England replaced the New England Confederation with the Dominion of New England in 1686, colonists resented the loss of local control. The dominion's governor, Sir Edmund Andros, restricted town meetings, questioned land titles, imposed new taxes, and enforced trade laws – all policies that colonists viewed as tyrannical.
- Colonial westward expansion created ongoing tensions as settlers pushed into Native American territories. Conflicts like King Philip's War (1675) and Bacon's Rebellion (1676) highlighted disagreements between colonial and imperial approaches to territorial expansion and Native relations.
- Trade restrictions under mercantilism provoked widespread smuggling and evasion of imperial regulations, establishing patterns of resistance to imperial economic control.
Ideological Foundations of Resistance
Colonial resistance to imperial control drew on multiple intellectual sources:
- Local experiences of self-government established expectations of political participation and representation.
- Enlightenment political thought provided theoretical frameworks for understanding rights and legitimacy of government.
- Growing religious diversity and independence fostered ideas about freedom of conscience and resistance to imposed authority.
- Colonial political discourse increasingly included criticism of perceived corruption in the imperial system and assertions of colonial rights as Englishmen.
These tensions and developing ideologies would lay crucial groundwork for the more dramatic imperial conflicts that would emerge after 1754, as the Seven Years' War transformed the relationship between Britain and its American colonies.
🎥Watch AP US History teacher Pat DiFilippo examine and analyze the similarities and differences between colonial American regions.
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anglicization | The process by which British colonial societies adopted English cultural practices, institutions, and values over time. |
| Enlightenment | An intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason, individual rights, and limited government. |
| Enlightenment ideas | Intellectual concepts from the European Enlightenment emphasizing reason, individual rights, and scientific thinking that influenced colonial thought. |
| First Great Awakening | A religious revival movement in the American colonies during the early 18th century that emphasized personal conversion and emotional religious experience. |
| frontier defense | The protection and security of colonial borders and settlements, a source of disagreement between colonists and British leaders. |
| imperial control | The authority and power exercised by the British Empire over its colonies and colonial subjects. |
| intellectual exchange | The sharing and discussion of ideas and knowledge among different groups of people. |
| liberty | The concept of individual freedom and rights, a central idea in Enlightenment political thought and colonial ideology. |
| pluralism | The coexistence of diverse religious, ethnic, and cultural groups within a society. |
| Protestant evangelicalism | A form of Protestantism emphasizing personal conversion, biblical authority, and active missionary work that spread throughout the colonies. |
| religious independence and diversity | The freedom of colonists to practice different religions without state control, a characteristic of colonial society. |
| self-government | The right and ability of a people to govern themselves through their own chosen representatives and institutions rather than being ruled by an external authority. |
| territorial settlements | Disputes and agreements regarding the boundaries and control of land between European powers and colonists. |
| trade | Commercial exchange of goods, a key area of conflict between colonial interests and British imperial policy. |
| transatlantic print culture | The circulation of printed materials, newspapers, and books across the Atlantic Ocean that connected colonial and European intellectual communities. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is Anglicization and why did it happen in the colonies?
Anglicization = the process by which British colonies in North America increasingly adopted English laws, customs, political institutions, language, and culture. It happened gradually because colonists kept strong economic, religious, and intellectual ties to Britain: trade and intercolonial commerce, a growing transatlantic print culture (books, newspapers), Protestant evangelical movements, and elites who modeled themselves on English society. Distance and Britain's policy of salutary neglect let colonies adapt English institutions—like colonial assemblies and town meetings—so they became autonomous political communities rooted in English practice but with local twists. Anglicization matters on the AP exam because it explains continuity/change in colonial identity (Topic 2.7) and is useful evidence in SAQs, DBQs, or LEQs about colonial political culture or resistance to imperial control. For a quick review, see the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How did the First Great Awakening change colonial society?
The First Great Awakening (1730s–1740s) reshaped colonial society by spreading evangelical Protestantism, increasing religious pluralism, and undermining traditional authority. Preachers like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield used emotional sermons and itinerant preaching to create new, enthusiastic congregations and spawn Baptist and Methodist growth. That democratization of religion emphasized individual choice and a personal relationship with God, which weakened established churches and elite control over spiritual life. Culturally it boosted print culture (sermons, pamphlets) and encouraged cross-colony networks—helping people see shared identities beyond local towns. Politically, the movement promoted ideas of equality and questioning authority that fed into later resistance to imperial control (ties to Enlightenment thinking and growing religious independence noted in the CED). For a quick review, see the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv) and practice AP-style questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What's the difference between pluralism and Anglicization in colonial America?
Pluralism = colonial diversity: different European ethnic and religious groups (Dutch, German, Scots-Irish, Puritans, Quakers), enslaved Africans, and Native peoples created religious pluralism and intellectual exchange. That diversity fueled things like the First Great Awakening and spread of Enlightenment ideas, so culture changed from many sources (KC-2.2.I.A). Think multiple voices and cross-Atlantic flows shaping beliefs and institutions. Anglicization = the colonies becoming more like Britain over time: English legal/political models, growing use of English customs, transatlantic print culture, Protestant evangelicalism, and local self-government (town meetings, assemblies) that mirrored English practice (KC-2.2.I.B). It’s about cultural and institutional alignment with Britain, not diversity. On the AP exam, you might contrast these in a short-answer or LEQ by showing pluralism as diversity-driven change and Anglicization as standardizing/English influence. For a quick review, check the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv). For more practice, use Fiveable’s Unit 2 resources and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/unit-2 and https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Why did European Enlightenment ideas spread to the colonies?
Enlightenment ideas spread to the colonies because people, print, and institutions connected the Atlantic world. Merchants, ministers, and colonial elites travelled and exchanged letters; transatlantic print culture (newspapers, pamphlets, books) circulated works by Locke, Newton, and Voltaire—Benjamin Franklin helped translate and popularize them. High literacy rates, colleges, and town meetings made colonists receptive, and salutary neglect gave local elites space to apply Enlightenment ideas to self-government, science, and commerce. The First Great Awakening also opened debates about authority and individual conscience, which mixed with Enlightenment political thought to produce ideas about liberty and rights. On the AP Exam, this shows up in LEQs/DBQs and short answers as evidence for intellectual causes of colonial resistance and Anglicization (use keywords like Enlightenment, transatlantic print culture, Benjamin Franklin). For a focused review, see the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Can someone explain what transatlantic print culture means in simple terms?
“Transatlantic print culture” just means the books, newspapers, pamphlets, and letters that traveled back and forth across the Atlantic and helped spread ideas between Europe, the Caribbean, Africa, and the American colonies. In Topic 2.7 this matters because printed materials carried Enlightenment arguments, religious ideas (and the First Great Awakening), political debate, and news—helping colonists think of themselves as part of a wider Atlantic world and start using shared vocabularies about liberty, politics, and science. Figures like Benjamin Franklin and circulating pamphlets made Anglicization and intellectual exchange stronger, helped shape public opinion, and supported growing demands for self-rule. On the AP exam, you can use transatlantic print culture as evidence in a DBQ or LEQ to explain how ideas crossed the ocean and influenced colonial resistance or cultural change. For more review see the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How did different religious groups contribute to colonial intellectual exchange?
Different religious groups drove colonial intellectual exchange by circulating ideas, creating institutions, and sparking debates that mixed faith with reason. Puritans and Congregationalists promoted literacy and town schools so people could read the Bible, while Anglicans and Quakers founded colleges (Harvard, William & Mary, Penn) that became sites for wider discussion. The First Great Awakening (Edwards, Whitefield) increased religious pluralism and print culture—sermons, pamphlets, and revival narratives crossed colonies and encouraged personal interpretation of scripture and authority. At the same time, Protestant tolerance in places like Pennsylvania let diverse sects debate Enlightenment ideas (natural rights, reason), so figures like Benjamin Franklin helped fuse scientific inquiry and civic discussion. On the AP exam, cite specific movements, people, and print sources in short answers or DBQs to show connections between religious change and Enlightenment influence (see the Topic 2.7 study guide) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv). For more practice, try Fiveable’s Unit 2 resources and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2; https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
I'm confused about how colonists viewed themselves versus how Britain saw them - can someone help?
Short answer: colonists increasingly saw themselves as English settlers with local rights who were becoming a distinct political community—shaped by self-government (town meetings, colonial assemblies), the Enlightenment, the First Great Awakening, religious pluralism, and growing commercial/print ties. Britain, however, still treated the colonies as subordinate parts of an imperial system: subjects under Parliament, tied to mercantilist trade rules and expected to help pay for frontier defense. That gap—fueled by salutary neglect, different economic interests, and evolving ideas of liberty—created mistrust and conflict (CED KC-2.2.I.D & I.E). For the AP exam: use that comparison to craft a thesis and evidence (e.g., assemblies, Stamp Act, colonial pamphlets) in SAQs/DBQs. For a focused review, see the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What caused the growing mistrust between British leaders and American colonists?
Mostly different goals and experiences. After decades of Salutary Neglect, colonists developed local self-rule (colonial assemblies, town meetings), a growing transatlantic print culture, and Enlightenment and First Great Awakening ideas about liberty and authority. British leaders, facing imperial debt and new geopolitical threats after the Seven Years’ War, tried to tighten control—threatening colonial autonomy through taxes, trade regulations, and limits on westward territorial settlement and frontier defense. Colonists saw this as infringement on rights they’d practiced for generations and used Enlightenment political thought to resist. Conflicts over trade enforcement, who paid for defense, and who governed the frontier deepened mutual suspicion. For AP prep, practice explaining causation and context (use evidence) on short-answer/DBQ prompts—see the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv) and more unit review/practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2 and https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Why were colonists upset about territorial settlements and frontier defense?
Colonists were upset because territorial settlement and frontier defense highlighted growing conflicts between colonial needs and British policy. After westward migration (backcountry movement) settlers wanted land and local control, but Britain—especially after the Seven Years’ War—tried to manage expansion (Proclamation of 1763) and reduce imperial costs by limiting frontier protection. Colonists felt exposed: they bore most fighting and local militia costs while London restricted settlement and imposed taxes to pay for imperial troops. That clashed with experiences of self-government (colonial assemblies, town meetings) and ideas about rights from the Enlightenment and Protestant independence. The result: resentment over trade, taxation, and perceived lack of local defense and representation—key in KC-2.2.I.E. For the AP exam, link these causes to broader themes like Salutary Neglect ending and growing mistrust of imperial control. For a quick review, see the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How did local self-government experiences influence colonial resistance to British control?
Colonial experiences with local self-government—town meetings in New England and elected colonial assemblies elsewhere—gave colonists practice making laws, raising taxes, and judging disputes without direct royal supervision (salutary neglect). That built expectations of political rights and shaped an ideology of liberty rooted in English political thought and Enlightenment ideas. When Parliament later tried to extend imperial control (taxation, Declaratory Act, etc.), colonists judged those moves against their local practices and argued “no taxation without representation.” Use this in AP responses: it’s great contextualization for Short Answers and LEQs and as a causal strand in DBQs (connect assemblies/town meetings → evolving ideas of liberty → resistance). For a quick review, see the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What role did Protestant evangelicalism play in shaping colonial culture?
Protestant evangelicalism—especially the revivals of the First Great Awakening (Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield)—reshaped colonial culture by expanding religious pluralism, fueling a transatlantic print culture, and weakening older clerical authority. Revivalism emphasized emotional, personal faith and itinerant preaching, which created intercolonial networks, challenged established churches (Anglicization), and encouraged new denominations and greater religious independence. That louder, more participatory religious life promoted ideas of equality and questioning authority that fed into political debates (helpful for SAQs/LEQs/DBQs). It also interacted with Enlightenment ideas—so colonies became more intellectually mixed, not just more “English.” Use this topic as strong contextualization or evidence of cultural change on the AP exam (CED KC-2.2.I.A, I.B, I.D). For a focused review, see the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about colonial society and the development of American identity?
Start with a focused thesis that answers how colonial society and transatlantic movements shaped American identity (e.g., pluralism, Anglicization, Enlightenment + Great Awakening tensions). In your intro also contextualize: migration, Atlantic print culture, salutary neglect, and slavery/Atlantic trade changed beliefs about self-rule and liberty (CED keywords: First Great Awakening, Enlightenment, transatlantic print culture, Anglicization). During the 15-minute DBQ read, group documents into 2–3 analytic categories (religious/intellectual change, political self-government, economic/demographic change). Use at least four documents to support those categories, explain POV/purpose for two docs, and add one specific outside fact (e.g., town meetings, Chesapeake backcountry migration, or spread of print by Ben Franklin). Connect documents to KC-2.2.I.A and I.B and KC-2.2.I.D/E to show continuity and change. For complexity, compare how Enlightenment ideas and evangelicalism pulled identity in different directions. For review see the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv). For extra practice, use Fiveable’s unit review and 1,000+ practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2 and https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Did the spread of Enlightenment ideas actually help colonists resist British rule?
Yes—the spread of Enlightenment ideas meaningfully helped colonists resist British rule. Enlightenment concepts (natural rights, social contract, consent of the governed) circulated through transatlantic print culture and colonial elites like Benjamin Franklin, giving intellectual tools to question parliamentary authority. Those ideas mixed with local practices—town meetings, colonial assemblies, and years of salutary neglect—so colonists already expected self-rule. The Great Awakening also contributed by encouraging individual conscience and skepticism of traditional authority. Together they fed evolving ideas of liberty that colonists used in protests, pamphlets, and ultimately in arguments against taxation and parliamentary overreach. On the AP exam, you can use this claim in a short-answer or DBQ/LEQ as both intellectual cause and as evidence of changing colonial identity (CED KC-2.2.I.A and KC-2.2.I.D). For a quick review, see the Topic 2.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What were the long-term effects of religious diversity on colonial political development?
Religious diversity in the colonies produced long-term political effects by promoting pluralism, local self-government, and new ideas of individual liberty. Diverse denominations (Puritans, Anglicans, Quakers, Presbyterians, Baptists) weakened any single church’s control, so colonies developed laws protecting toleration and private conscience. Churches also fostered town meetings and voluntary associations that trained people in self-rule; evangelicalism from the First Great Awakening and Enlightenment ideas increased skepticism of traditional authority and pushed people toward greater religious independence and political participation. Over time this fed colonial assemblies’ confidence to challenge imperial control and shaped American ideas about separation of church and state and rights-based liberty—topics you should connect to in short-answer or essay prompts (use contextualization and specific evidence). For a concise review of Topic 2.7, see the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-2/colonial-society-culture/study-guide/Lko98iWbbumC8ceFevkv) and try practice questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).