| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| 10% rule | An ecological principle stating that approximately 10% of the energy available at one trophic level is transferred to the next trophic level, with the remaining 90% lost. |
| energy transfer | The movement of energy from one trophic level to another through feeding relationships in an ecosystem. |
| laws of thermodynamics | Physical principles that explain energy transformations, including that energy cannot be created or destroyed and that energy tends to become less organized and available for work. |
| trophic level | The position an organism occupies in a food chain or food web, determined by the number of energy transfer steps from the primary producer. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| commensalism | A type of symbiosis in which one species benefits while the other species is neither helped nor harmed. |
| competition | The struggle between organisms in an ecosystem for limited resources such as food, territory, mates, and habitat. |
| mutualism | A type of symbiosis in which both species benefit from the interaction. |
| parasitism | A type of symbiosis in which one species (the parasite) benefits while the other species (the host) is harmed. |
| predator | An organism that hunts and eats another organism (prey) for food. |
| predator-prey relationship | An interaction between two species in which a predator organism hunts and consumes another organism (the prey) for food. |
| prey | An organism that is hunted and eaten by a predator. |
| resource partitioning | The use of resources in different ways, places, or at different times by different species to reduce the negative impact of competition. |
| symbiosis | A close and long-term interaction between two species living in an ecosystem. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| energy flow | The movement of energy from one trophic level to the next through an ecosystem, beginning with solar energy captured by producers. |
| feedback loops | Mechanisms in ecosystems where changes in one component affect other components, which can either amplify (positive feedback) or dampen (negative feedback) the initial change. |
| food chain | A linear sequence showing the transfer of energy and nutrients from one organism to the next, starting with a producer and moving through consumers. |
| food web | A model depicting interlocking patterns of multiple food chains that shows the complex flow of energy and nutrients among organisms in an ecosystem. |
| nutrient flow | The movement of chemical nutrients and elements through an ecosystem via food chains and food webs. |
| trophic level | The position an organism occupies in a food chain or food web, determined by the number of energy transfer steps from the primary producer. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| adapt | The process by which organisms develop traits or behaviors that allow them to survive and reproduce in their environment. |
| altitude | The elevation above sea level, which affects temperature and precipitation and influences biome characteristics. |
| biome | A large geographic area characterized by distinctive climate, vegetation, and animal communities adapted to those environmental conditions. |
| climate | Long-term patterns of atmospheric conditions, including average temperature and precipitation, over decades or centuries at a specific location. |
| desert | A terrestrial biome characterized by very low precipitation, extreme temperatures, and sparse vegetation adapted to arid conditions. |
| global climate change | Long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather patterns caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. |
| latitude | The angular distance north or south of the equator, which affects the intensity of solar radiation received at a location. |
| nutrient availability | The presence and accessibility of essential nutrients in soil that support plant growth and affect biome productivity. |
| savanna | A terrestrial biome with scattered trees and shrubs, grasses, seasonal rainfall, and warm temperatures year-round. |
| shrubland | A terrestrial biome dominated by low-growing woody plants and shrubs, typically with moderate precipitation and seasonal variation. |
| soil | The layer of weathered rock and organic material on Earth's surface that supports plant growth and varies among biomes. |
| taiga | A terrestrial biome characterized by coniferous forests, long cold winters, and short growing seasons, located at high latitudes. |
| temperate grassland | A terrestrial biome characterized by grasses and herbaceous plants, moderate precipitation, and temperature variations between seasons. |
| temperate rainforest | A terrestrial biome with high precipitation, moderate temperatures, and dense vegetation found in temperate regions. |
| temperate seasonal forest | A terrestrial biome with moderate precipitation, distinct seasons, and deciduous or mixed forests in temperate regions. |
| tropical rainforest | A terrestrial biome near the equator characterized by high precipitation, warm temperatures year-round, and high biodiversity. |
| tundra | A terrestrial biome at high latitudes or high altitudes with permanently frozen soil, low precipitation, and vegetation adapted to extreme cold. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| algae | The major photosynthetic organisms in aquatic biomes that form the base of aquatic food webs. |
| aquatic biomes | Ecosystems characterized by water environments, including both freshwater and marine systems. |
| coral reefs | Marine ecosystems built by coral organisms that provide habitat for diverse species and are sensitive to temperature changes, sediment, and fishing practices. |
| depth | The vertical distance of water in aquatic biomes, affecting light penetration and organism distribution. |
| estuaries | Transitional marine ecosystems where rivers meet oceans, with varying salinity levels. |
| freshwater biomes | Aquatic ecosystems with low salinity water, including streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, and freshwater wetlands. |
| freshwater wetlands | Freshwater ecosystems with saturated soil and shallow water, supporting specialized vegetation. |
| lakes | Large freshwater ecosystems with still water, typically deeper than ponds. |
| marine biomes | Aquatic ecosystems characterized by saltwater, including oceans, coral reefs, marshlands, and estuaries. |
| marshland | Marine or brackish wetland ecosystems with salt-tolerant vegetation. |
| nutrient availability | The presence and accessibility of essential nutrients in soil that support plant growth and affect biome productivity. |
| oceans | The primary reservoir of water at Earth's surface in the hydrologic cycle. |
| ponds | Small, shallow freshwater ecosystems with still water. |
| rivers | Large flowing freshwater ecosystems that transport water across landscapes. |
| salinity | The concentration of dissolved salts in water, affecting the distribution of aquatic organisms. |
| streams | Flowing freshwater ecosystems, typically smaller than rivers. |
| temperature | A measure of thermal energy that affects organism survival and is a key factor in ecological tolerance. |
| turbidity | The cloudiness or clarity of water, affecting light penetration in aquatic ecosystems. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| carbon cycle | The biogeochemical process by which carbon moves between the atmosphere, living organisms, soil, and water systems. |
| carbon dioxide | A greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels and respiration; a principal contributor to global climate change. |
| cellular respiration | The metabolic process in living organisms that breaks down organic compounds and releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. |
| decomposition | The process by which dead organic matter is broken down by microorganisms, releasing CO2 and other nutrients back into the environment. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that release carbon dioxide when burned. |
| photosynthesis | The process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and light energy into organic compounds, removing carbon from the atmosphere. |
| reservoir | A storage location or system that holds compounds (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, or water) for varying periods of time in biogeochemical cycles. |
| sinks | Locations or systems that absorb and store substances (water, carbon, etc.) from the environment in biogeochemical cycles. |
| sources | Origins or locations from which substances (water, carbon, etc.) are released into the environment in biogeochemical cycles. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| ammonia | A nitrogen compound (NH₃) produced during nitrogen fixation that is available for uptake by plants. |
| atmospheric nitrogen | Nitrogen gas (N₂) present in the atmosphere, which is the major reservoir of nitrogen on Earth. |
| nitrogen cycle | The movement of nitrogen atoms and molecules between sources and sinks in the environment, including the atmosphere, living organisms, and soil. |
| nitrogen fixation | The process by which atmospheric nitrogen is converted into ammonia or other nitrogen compounds that plants can use and incorporate into plant tissue. |
| reservoir | A storage location or system that holds compounds (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, or water) for varying periods of time in biogeochemical cycles. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| ATP | Adenosine triphosphate, a biological molecule containing phosphorus that stores and transfers energy in cells. |
| DNA | A biological molecule containing phosphorus that stores genetic information in organisms. |
| phosphates | Compounds containing phosphorus that are absorbed by plant roots and incorporated into biological molecules. |
| phosphorus availability | The amount of phosphorus accessible to plants and algae in soils and aquatic systems, which limits their productivity. |
| phosphorus cycle | The movement of phosphorus atoms and molecules between sources and sinks in the environment, including rock, sediments, soil, organisms, and aquatic systems. |
| phosphorus-bearing minerals | Rock and sediment minerals that contain phosphorus as a major component and serve as the primary phosphorus reservoirs. |
| reservoir | A storage location or system that holds compounds (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, or water) for varying periods of time in biogeochemical cycles. |
| RNA | A biological molecule containing phosphorus involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| groundwater | Water stored beneath Earth's surface in soil and rock layers, serving as a smaller reservoir in the hydrologic cycle. |
| hydrologic cycle | The continuous movement of water in its various solid, liquid, and gaseous phases between Earth's surface and the atmosphere, powered by solar energy. |
| ice caps | Smaller reservoirs of water stored as ice at Earth's poles and high elevations in the hydrologic cycle. |
| oceans | The primary reservoir of water at Earth's surface in the hydrologic cycle. |
| reservoir | A storage location or system that holds compounds (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, or water) for varying periods of time in biogeochemical cycles. |
| sinks | Locations or systems that absorb and store substances (water, carbon, etc.) from the environment in biogeochemical cycles. |
| sources | Origins or locations from which substances (water, carbon, etc.) are released into the environment in biogeochemical cycles. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| blue light | Wavelengths of light that penetrate deeper than 100 meters in clear water, affecting photosynthesis at greater depths. |
| gross primary productivity | The total rate of photosynthesis in a given area, representing all energy captured by photosynthesizers. |
| net primary productivity | The rate of energy storage by photosynthesizers in a given area after accounting for energy lost to respiration. |
| organic compounds | Carbon-containing molecules produced by living organisms, such as glucose and other carbohydrates. |
| photosynthesis | The process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and light energy into organic compounds, removing carbon from the atmosphere. |
| photosynthesizers | Organisms, primarily plants and algae, that perform photosynthesis to convert solar energy into organic compounds. |
| primary productivity | The rate at which solar energy is converted into organic compounds via photosynthesis over a unit of time. |
| red light | Wavelengths of light that are primarily absorbed in the upper 1 meter of water, affecting aquatic photosynthesis. |
| respiration | The metabolic process by which organisms break down organic molecules to release energy, producing CO2 as a byproduct. |
| solar energy | Energy from the sun in the form of light and heat that is captured by living organisms. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biogeochemical cycles | Cycles that move matter (such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus) through the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. |
| conservation of matter | The principle that matter is neither created nor destroyed but is recycled and transformed through biogeochemical cycles. |
| energy flow | The movement of energy from one trophic level to the next through an ecosystem, beginning with solar energy captured by producers. |
| high-quality energy | Energy in a concentrated, usable form (such as solar radiation) that ecosystems require for functioning. |
| matter cycles | The movement and recycling of chemical elements and compounds through ecosystems, demonstrating the conservation of matter. |
| producers | Organisms, primarily plants and photosynthetic organisms, that convert solar energy into chemical energy at the lowest trophic level. |
| trophic level | The position an organism occupies in a food chain or food web, determined by the number of energy transfer steps from the primary producer. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biodiversity | The variety of all living organisms and species within an ecosystem, region, or the entire planet. |
| generalist species | Species that can survive and reproduce in a wide variety of environmental conditions and food sources, and tend to be advantaged in changing habitats. |
| genetic diversity | The variation in genes within a population, which enables the population to respond to environmental stressors. |
| habitat diversity | The variety of different habitats or environments within an ecosystem. |
| population bottleneck | A drastic reduction in population size that leads to a loss of genetic diversity. |
| specialist species | Species that are adapted to specific environmental conditions and have narrow habitat requirements. |
| species diversity | The variety of different species present in an ecosystem. |
| species richness | The number of different species present in an ecosystem. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anthropogenic activities | Human actions and processes that cause changes to the environment, including industrial production, agriculture, and resource extraction. |
| cultural services | Ecosystem services that provide non-material benefits to humans, including recreation, spiritual value, and aesthetic enjoyment. |
| ecological consequences | The effects on natural systems and organisms resulting from disruptions to ecosystem services, such as biodiversity loss or habitat degradation. |
| economic consequences | The financial and material impacts resulting from changes to ecosystem services, such as loss of resources or increased costs for environmental management. |
| ecosystem services | The benefits that humans receive from natural ecosystems, including resources, regulation of environmental processes, and cultural values. |
| human disruptions | Changes or disturbances to ecosystems caused by human activities that alter natural processes and functions. |
| provisioning services | Ecosystem services that provide direct material benefits to humans, such as food, water, timber, and other natural resources. |
| regulating services | Ecosystem services that maintain environmental conditions necessary for life, such as climate regulation, water purification, and pollination. |
| supporting services | Ecosystem services that maintain the conditions for all other ecosystem services, such as nutrient cycling and soil formation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| colonization | The process by which new species arrive and establish themselves on islands from other locations. |
| community structures | The composition and organization of populations of different species living together on islands. |
| distribution of organisms | The spatial arrangement and presence of different species across islands. |
| ecological relationships | The interactions and connections between organisms and their environment on islands. |
| evolution | The process of change in species over time through adaptation and natural selection. |
| generalist species | Species that can survive and reproduce in a wide variety of environmental conditions and food sources, and tend to be advantaged in changing habitats. |
| invasive species | Non-native organisms introduced to an ecosystem that outcompete native species for resources and can disrupt ecological balance. |
| island biogeography | The study of the distribution, diversity, and evolution of species on islands and how island characteristics affect species composition and adaptation. |
| specialist species | Species that are adapted to specific environmental conditions and have narrow habitat requirements. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| ecological tolerance | The range of environmental conditions, such as temperature, salinity, flow rate, and sunlight, that an organism can endure before injury or death occurs. |
| flow rate | The speed at which water or other fluids move through an environment, affecting organism survival and habitat suitability. |
| salinity | The concentration of dissolved salts in water, affecting the distribution of aquatic organisms. |
| sunlight | Light energy from the sun that organisms require for various biological processes and survival. |
| temperature | A measure of thermal energy that affects organism survival and is a key factor in ecological tolerance. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Earth system processes | Large-scale natural processes that operate across the planet, including climate, water cycles, and geological changes. |
| Earth's climate | The long-term patterns of temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric conditions that characterize different regions of the planet. |
| ecosystem | A community of living organisms interacting with each other and their physical environment. |
| environmental consequences | The effects or impacts that result from disruptions or changes to natural systems. |
| episodic processes | Earth system processes that occur irregularly or at unpredictable intervals. |
| geological time | The vast timescale spanning millions to billions of years over which Earth's physical features and climate have changed. |
| glacial ice | Large accumulations of frozen water on land that affect sea level when they form or melt. |
| habitat | The specific environment or place where an organism or species naturally lives and obtains the resources it needs to survive. |
| migration | The movement of wildlife populations from one location to another, often in response to environmental changes or seasonal patterns. |
| natural disruptions | Events or processes that occur naturally in ecosystems and cause significant changes to environmental conditions, species populations, or habitat structure. |
| periodic processes | Earth system processes that occur at regular, predictable intervals. |
| random processes | Earth system processes that occur without predictable patterns or regular timing. |
| sea level | The average height of the ocean's surface, which can change due to climate change and affect coastal habitats. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| adapt | The process by which organisms develop traits or behaviors that allow them to survive and reproduce in their environment. |
| environmental changes | Alterations in conditions or factors in an organism's surroundings, such as climate, food availability, or habitat composition. |
| genetic level | Changes that occur in the DNA or genes of organisms, which can be passed on to offspring. |
| incremental changes | Small, gradual modifications that accumulate over time to produce larger adaptations. |
| species' survival | The continued existence and reproduction of a population of organisms over time. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biomass | The total mass of living organisms in an ecosystem. |
| ecological succession | The process of change in species composition and ecosystem structure over time following a disturbance or in unoccupied habitat. |
| indicator species | A plant or animal whose presence, abundance, scarcity, or chemical composition demonstrates distinctive aspects of an ecosystem's character or quality. |
| keystone species | A species whose activities have a particularly significant role in determining the structure and composition of its community. |
| net productivity | The rate at which an ecosystem accumulates biomass after accounting for energy used in respiration. |
| pioneer species | Early successional species that are the first to colonize unoccupied or disturbed habitats. |
| primary succession | Ecological succession that occurs in an area with no pre-existing soil or community, such as on bare rock or newly formed land. |
| secondary succession | Ecological succession that occurs in an area where soil and some species already exist, following a disturbance that removes the existing community. |
| species richness | The number of different species present in an ecosystem. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| generalist species | Species that can survive and reproduce in a wide variety of environmental conditions and food sources, and tend to be advantaged in changing habitats. |
| specialist species | Species that are adapted to specific environmental conditions and have narrow habitat requirements. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biotic potential | The maximum reproductive rate of a population under ideal environmental conditions with unlimited resources. |
| invasive species | Non-native organisms introduced to an ecosystem that outcompete native species for resources and can disrupt ecological balance. |
| K-selected species | Species that tend to be large, produce few offspring, invest significant energy in each offspring, mature slowly with extended parental care, have long lifespans, and reproduce multiple times in their lifetime, typically in stable environments with high resource competition. |
| r-selected species | Species that tend to be small, produce many offspring, invest minimal energy in each offspring, mature early, have short lifespans, and may reproduce only once in their lifetime, typically in environments with low resource competition. |
| reproductive strategies | The different approaches species use for reproduction, which may vary along the K-selected to r-selected spectrum or change based on environmental conditions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cohort | A group of individuals of the same age in a population. |
| K-selected species | Species that tend to be large, produce few offspring, invest significant energy in each offspring, mature slowly with extended parental care, have long lifespans, and reproduce multiple times in their lifetime, typically in stable environments with high resource competition. |
| r-selected species | Species that tend to be small, produce many offspring, invest minimal energy in each offspring, mature early, have short lifespans, and may reproduce only once in their lifetime, typically in environments with low resource competition. |
| survivorship curve | A line graph that displays the relative survival rates of a cohort from birth to the maximum age reached by any member of that cohort. |
| Type I curve | A survivorship curve showing high survival rates throughout most of an organism's lifespan, with most deaths occurring at old age; typical of K-selected species. |
| Type II curve | A survivorship curve showing a relatively constant death rate throughout an organism's lifespan; typical of some K-selected species. |
| Type III curve | A survivorship curve showing high mortality rates early in life, with few individuals surviving to old age; typical of r-selected species. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| carrying capacity | The maximum population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely given available resources and conditions. |
| dieback | A sudden and severe decline in population size, often resulting from resource scarcity or environmental stress. |
| disease | An illness or disorder that affects organisms, often spreading more rapidly in stressed or overcrowded populations. |
| famine | A widespread scarcity of food leading to malnutrition and starvation in a population. |
| population overshoot | A situation where a population exceeds the carrying capacity of its environment, leading to resource depletion and environmental degradation. |
| resource depletion | The reduction or exhaustion of natural resources due to overuse or extraction. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| carrying capacity | The maximum population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely given available resources and conditions. |
| environmental factors | Physical and biological conditions in an environment that limit or support population growth, including resource availability and space. |
| fecundity | The biological capacity of a population to reproduce, which decreases when resources become scarce. |
| mortality | The death rate in a population, which increases when resource availability declines and resources are unequally distributed. |
| population growth | The increase in the number of individuals in a population over time, which is limited by environmental factors and available resources. |
| resource availability | The presence and accessibility of resources needed by a population, such as food, water, and space, which directly influences the rate and sustainability of population growth. |
| resource base | The total amount of resources available to support a population, which is finite and limited over all time scales. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| age structure diagrams | Visual representations of the distribution of a population by age groups, typically displayed as horizontal bar charts that show the proportion of males and females at each age level. |
| declining population | A population with a lower proportion of younger individuals compared to older individuals, indicating a decrease in population size over time. |
| population growth rate | The rate at which a population increases or decreases over time, which can be determined by analyzing the shape and proportions shown in age structure diagrams. |
| rapidly growing population | A population characterized by a high proportion of younger individuals relative to older individuals, typically indicated by a wide base in an age structure diagram. |
| stable population | A population with relatively equal proportions across age groups, indicating little change in population size over time. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| age at first child | The age at which a female has her first child; a factor that affects total fertility rate and population growth patterns. |
| educational opportunities for females | Access to schooling and learning for women and girls; increased education is associated with lower fertility rates. |
| family planning | Access to contraception, reproductive health services, and information that allows individuals to control the timing and number of children they have. |
| government acts and policies | Laws and government programs that influence population growth, such as incentives or restrictions on family size. |
| infant mortality rate | The number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a given population. |
| maternal healthcare | Medical services and support provided to mothers during pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum; affects infant survival rates. |
| nutrition | Adequate food and nutrients necessary for health; maternal and infant nutrition affects infant mortality rates. |
| replacement level | The fertility rate at which a population replaces itself from one generation to the next, typically around 2.1 children per female in developed countries. |
| total fertility rate (TFR) | The average number of children a female is expected to have in her lifetime; a key measure of population growth and demographic change. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| birth rate | The number of live births per unit of population (typically per 1,000 people) in a given time period. |
| carrying capacity | The maximum population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely given available resources and conditions. |
| death rate | The number of deaths per unit of population (typically per 1,000 people) in a given time period. |
| density-dependent factors | Environmental factors that limit population growth and become more severe as population density increases, such as disease and competition for resources. |
| density-independent factors | Environmental factors that limit population growth regardless of population density, such as natural disasters or extreme weather events. |
| family planning | Access to contraception, reproductive health services, and information that allows individuals to control the timing and number of children they have. |
| infant mortality rate | The number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a given population. |
| Malthusian theory | The theory that human population grows exponentially while food supply grows linearly, leading to resource scarcity and population limitations. |
| population doubling time | The number of years required for a population to double in size at a given growth rate. |
| rule of 70 | A mathematical principle stating that dividing 70 by the percentage population growth rate approximates how many years it takes for a population to double in size. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| birth rate | The number of live births per unit of population (typically per 1,000 people) in a given time period. |
| death rate | The number of deaths per unit of population (typically per 1,000 people) in a given time period. |
| demographic transition | The transition from high to lower birth and death rates in a country or region as development occurs and the country moves from a preindustrial to an industrialized economic system. |
| demographic transition model (DTM) | A four-stage model that demonstrates the transition from high to lower birth and death rates as a country develops from preindustrial to industrialized. |
| developed country | Countries with higher levels of economic development, typically characterized by lower infant mortality rates and less reliance on child labor. |
| developing country | Countries with lower levels of economic development, typically characterized by higher infant mortality rates and greater reliance on child labor. |
| industrialized economic system | An economic system characterized by the development of large-scale manufacturing, mechanization, and factory-based production. |
| infant mortality rate | The number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a given population. |
| preindustrial | A stage of economic development before industrialization, characterized by economies based primarily on agriculture and manual labor. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| convergent plate boundaries | Plate boundaries where two tectonic plates move toward each other, resulting in compression and the formation of mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes. |
| divergent plate boundaries | Plate boundaries where two tectonic plates move away from each other, resulting in seafloor spreading, rift valleys, volcanoes, and earthquakes. |
| earthquakes | Sudden releases of energy in the Earth's crust that occur when stress overcomes a locked fault, commonly found at all types of plate boundaries. |
| faults | Fractures in the Earth's crust where rocks have shifted relative to each other, commonly associated with plate boundaries and earthquakes. |
| hot spots | Stationary areas of intense heat in the Earth's mantle that can produce volcanoes as tectonic plates move over them. |
| island arcs | Curved chains of volcanic islands formed at convergent plate boundaries where oceanic plates collide. |
| locked fault | A fault where stress has accumulated but the rocks are held in place, releasing energy suddenly when the stress overcomes the friction. |
| mountains | High elevation landforms that can block or redirect precipitation and affect local weather and climate patterns. |
| plate boundaries | The edges where tectonic plates meet, classified as convergent, divergent, or transform based on the direction of plate movement. |
| rift valleys | Deep valleys formed at divergent plate boundaries where the crust is pulled apart and subsides. |
| seafloor spreading | The process by which new oceanic crust is created at divergent plate boundaries as plates move apart. |
| stress | The force applied to rocks at plate boundaries that can accumulate and eventually cause earthquakes when it overcomes friction. |
| transform plate boundaries | Plate boundaries where two tectonic plates slide horizontally past each other, resulting in earthquakes. |
| volcanoes | Openings in the Earth's crust where magma, gases, and ash are expelled, commonly formed at convergent and divergent plate boundaries. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| parent material | The original rock or mineral material that is weathered to form soil. |
| soil erosion | The wearing away and loss of topsoil, often caused by water or wind, particularly accelerated when vegetation is removed. |
| soil filtration | The process by which soil filters and cleans water that moves through it. |
| soil horizons | Distinct layers within soil that differ in composition, color, and organic material content. |
| weathering | The process by which parent material is broken down into smaller particles through physical, chemical, or biological processes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biological properties of soil | Characteristics of soil related to living organisms and organic matter, such as microbial activity and decomposition. |
| chemical properties of soil | Characteristics of soil related to its chemical composition, such as pH, nutrient content, and ion exchange capacity. |
| clay | The smallest soil particles (less than 0.002 mm), which significantly affect soil water retention and plasticity. |
| particle size | The diameter or dimensions of individual soil particles, which affects soil properties like porosity and permeability. |
| permeability | The ability of soil to allow water and air to move through it, influenced by particle size and pore connectivity. |
| physical properties of soil | Characteristics of soil related to its structure and composition, such as texture, porosity, and water holding capacity. |
| porosity | The proportion of void spaces (pores) in soil relative to the total soil volume, affecting water and air movement. |
| sand | The largest soil particles (0.05-2 mm) that increase soil porosity and permeability. |
| silt | Medium-sized soil particles (0.002-0.05 mm) that contribute to soil structure and water retention. |
| soil fertility | The capacity of soil to provide essential nutrients and favorable conditions for plant growth and productivity. |
| soil horizon | A distinct layer of soil with specific physical and chemical properties that differ from layers above and below it. |
| soil texture triangle | A diagram used to classify and identify soil types based on the relative percentages of clay, silt, and sand particles. |
| soil types | Different categories of soil distinguished by their physical and chemical properties, such as clay, silt, and sand composition. |
| water holding capacity | The total amount of water that soil can retain and hold against gravitational forces. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| atmosphere | The layer of gases surrounding Earth that is composed of major gases in varying proportions and is organized into distinct layers based on temperature. |
| exosphere | The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere where gas molecules are sparse and gradually transition to outer space. |
| mesosphere | The layer of the atmosphere above the stratosphere where temperature decreases with altitude and meteors burn up. |
| stratosphere | The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere where temperature increases with altitude and the ozone layer is located. |
| temperature gradients | The changes in temperature with altitude that define and distinguish the different layers of the atmosphere. |
| thermosphere | The layer of the atmosphere above the mesosphere where temperature increases with altitude due to absorption of solar radiation. |
| troposphere | The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere where temperature generally decreases with altitude and where most weather occurs. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| atmospheric circulation | The large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere driven by differences in solar heating and the Coriolis effect. |
| Coriolis effect | The apparent deflection of moving objects (including air) due to Earth's rotation, which influences the direction of wind patterns. |
| density differences | Variations in air density caused by unequal heating, which drive the movement of air masses in the atmosphere. |
| global wind patterns | Large-scale, predictable wind systems that result from solar heating and the Coriolis effect. |
| solar radiation | Energy from the sun that reaches Earth's surface and atmosphere, with the most intense radiation occurring at the equator. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| soil | The layer of weathered rock and organic material on Earth's surface that supports plant growth and varies among biomes. |
| vegetation types | The different kinds of plants and plant communities present in a watershed, which influence water infiltration and runoff. |
| watershed | A geographic area of land where all water drains to a common outlet, characterized by specific physical and biological features. |
| watershed area | The total surface area of land contained within a watershed that contributes water to a common outlet. |
| watershed divides | The boundaries or ridgelines that separate one watershed from adjacent watersheds, determining the direction of water flow. |
| watershed slope | The gradient or steepness of the land within a watershed, which affects water flow rate and erosion patterns. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| angle of the sun's rays | The angle at which solar radiation strikes Earth's surface, which determines the intensity of the radiation received. |
| daylight hours | The length of time during which the sun is above the horizon at a particular location, which varies seasonally due to Earth's axial tilt. |
| Earth's axis of rotation | The imaginary line around which Earth rotates, whose tilt causes seasonal variations in solar radiation and daylight hours. |
| equator | The latitude line at 0 degrees that receives the highest solar radiation per unit area on Earth. |
| insolation | Incoming solar radiation received by Earth, which varies with season and latitude. |
| intensity of solar radiation | The amount of solar energy received per unit area, which varies based on latitude and the angle of the sun's rays. |
| latitude | The angular distance north or south of the equator, which affects the intensity of solar radiation received at a location. |
| poles | The northernmost and southernmost points on Earth where solar radiation intensity is lowest. |
| season | A period of the year characterized by particular weather patterns and varying amounts of solar radiation received at a location. |
| solar radiation | Energy from the sun that reaches Earth's surface and atmosphere, with the most intense radiation occurring at the equator. |
| tilt of Earth's axis | The 23.5-degree angle of Earth's rotational axis relative to its orbital plane, which causes seasons and variations in daylight hours. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| climate | Long-term patterns of atmospheric conditions, including average temperature and precipitation, over decades or centuries at a specific location. |
| elevation | The height of a location above sea level, which affects temperature, precipitation, and climate patterns. |
| geographic factors | Physical features of Earth's surface, such as mountains and ocean temperature, that affect weather and climate patterns. |
| geography | The physical features and characteristics of Earth's surface, including landforms, water bodies, and their spatial distribution. |
| geologic factors | Physical characteristics of Earth's crust and interior, such as rock composition and volcanic activity, that influence weather and climate. |
| mountains | High elevation landforms that can block or redirect precipitation and affect local weather and climate patterns. |
| ocean temperature | The thermal conditions of ocean water that influence atmospheric temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns. |
| precipitation | Water falling from clouds to Earth's surface in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail. |
| rain shadow | A region of land that receives less precipitation because a higher elevation area blocks moisture-bearing winds from reaching it. |
| sun's energy | Solar radiation that drives weather and climate systems on Earth. |
| weather | Short-term atmospheric conditions including temperature, precipitation, wind, and humidity at a specific location. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| El Niño | A climate phenomenon characterized by warmer than normal ocean surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean that causes global changes to rainfall, wind, and ocean circulation patterns. |
| El Niño-Southern Oscillation | The coupled ocean-atmosphere system in the tropical Pacific that includes both El Niño and La Niña events and their effects on global climate patterns. |
| La Niña | A climate phenomenon characterized by cooler than normal ocean surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean that causes global changes to rainfall, wind, and ocean circulation patterns. |
| ocean circulation patterns | The movement and flow of ocean currents and water masses, which can be altered during El Niño and La Niña events. |
| ocean surface temperatures | The temperature of water at the ocean's surface, which changes during El Niño and La Niña events and influences global climate patterns. |
| rainfall patterns | The distribution and amount of precipitation across regions, which can be altered globally during El Niño and La Niña events. |
| wind patterns | The direction and strength of winds across regions, which can be changed globally during El Niño and La Niña events. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| carbon cycle | The biogeochemical process by which carbon moves between the atmosphere, living organisms, soil, and water systems. |
| carbon dioxide | A greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels and respiration; a principal contributor to global climate change. |
| flooding | The overflow of water onto land areas, often caused by increased runoff from impervious surfaces that prevents water absorption into soil. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that release carbon dioxide when burned. |
| hydrologic cycle | The continuous movement of water in its various solid, liquid, and gaseous phases between Earth's surface and the atmosphere, powered by solar energy. |
| impervious surfaces | Human-made structures such as roads, buildings, sidewalks, and parking lots that prevent water infiltration into the soil. |
| landfills | Designated areas where solid waste is disposed of and buried, which can release methane and carbon dioxide as organic matter decomposes. |
| population density | The number of people living in a given area, used to distinguish between densely populated urban centers and sparsely populated rural regions. |
| resource depletion | The reduction or exhaustion of natural resources due to overuse or extraction. |
| saltwater intrusion | The movement of saltwater into freshwater aquifers and groundwater supplies, typically caused by excessive groundwater extraction in coastal areas. |
| urban sprawl | The uncontrolled expansion of urban development into surrounding rural and agricultural areas, characterized by low-density suburban growth. |
| urbanization | The process of population growth and development that transforms rural areas into urban centers with increased human settlement and infrastructure. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| common good | The collective well-being and benefit of a community or society as a whole, rather than individual advantage. |
| resource depletion | The reduction or exhaustion of natural resources due to overuse or extraction. |
| self-interest | Individual motivation to maximize personal benefit or gain, often at the expense of collective welfare. |
| shared resources | Natural or common resources that are accessible to multiple individuals or groups and not owned by any single entity. |
| tragedy of the commons | A concept describing how individuals acting in their own self-interest may deplete shared resources, ultimately harming the common good and the sustainability of those resources. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| ecological footprint | A measure that compares the resource demands and waste production of an individual or society to the Earth's capacity to provide those resources and absorb that waste. |
| resource demands | The amount and types of natural resources required to support the consumption and activities of an individual or society. |
| waste production | The quantity and types of waste generated by an individual or society through consumption and daily activities. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biological diversity | The variety of different species and ecosystems present in an environment. |
| environmental indicators | Measurable factors such as biological diversity, food production, temperature, and CO₂ concentrations that guide humans toward sustainable practices. |
| renewable resource | A natural resource that can be replenished or regenerated over time if managed sustainably. |
| resource depletion | The reduction or exhaustion of natural resources due to overuse or extraction. |
| sustainability | The ability of humans to live on Earth and use resources without depleting them for future generations. |
| sustainable yield | The amount of a renewable resource that can be harvested or used without reducing the available supply for the future. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| mitigation | Actions taken to reduce the severity or impact of environmental problems. |
| permeable pavement | Paving material that allows water to pass through it into the soil below, reducing runoff and increasing water infiltration. |
| urban runoff | Water from precipitation that flows over urban surfaces such as pavement and roofs, carrying pollutants into water systems rather than infiltrating into the ground. |
| water infiltration | The process by which water soaks into the soil and groundwater rather than flowing across the surface as runoff. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biocontrol | The use of biological organisms or natural enemies to control pest populations. |
| crop rotation | The practice of growing different crops in succession on the same land to reduce pest populations and maintain soil fertility. |
| human health | The physical and physiological well-being of people, which can be threatened by pesticide exposure and environmental disruptions. |
| integrated pest management (IPM) | An approach to pest control that combines multiple strategies to minimize pesticide use while reducing risks to wildlife, water supplies, human health, and the environment. |
| intercropping | The practice of growing two or more crop species in the same area to manage pests and improve soil health. |
| natural predators | Organisms that hunt and consume pest species, helping to control their populations naturally. |
| pest species | Organisms that damage crops, spread disease, or otherwise negatively impact human interests. |
| pesticides | Chemical substances used to kill or control pests, which can pose risks to wildlife, water supplies, and human health. |
| water supplies | Sources of water for human use that can be contaminated by pesticides and other pollutants. |
| wildlife | Wild animals and organisms in natural ecosystems that can be affected by pesticide use and environmental disruptions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| contour plowing | An agricultural technique where fields are plowed along the contours of the land to reduce water runoff and soil erosion. |
| crop rotation | The practice of growing different crops in succession on the same land to reduce pest populations and maintain soil fertility. |
| green manure | Crops, typically legumes, that are grown and plowed back into the soil to increase nitrogen content and improve soil fertility. |
| limestone | A mineral added to soil to neutralize acidity and improve soil fertility for crop production. |
| no-till agriculture | A farming practice that minimizes soil disturbance by planting crops without plowing, reducing erosion and preserving soil structure. |
| overgrazing | The excessive grazing of livestock on pasture land, leading to vegetation depletion and soil degradation. |
| perennial crops | Plants that live for more than two years and do not require replanting annually, helping to stabilize soil. |
| rotational grazing | The practice of moving livestock between different pastures at regular intervals to prevent overgrazing and allow vegetation recovery. |
| soil conservation | Practices and methods used to prevent soil erosion and maintain soil quality for agricultural use. |
| soil erosion | The wearing away and loss of topsoil, often caused by water or wind, particularly accelerated when vegetation is removed. |
| soil fertility | The capacity of soil to provide essential nutrients and favorable conditions for plant growth and productivity. |
| strip cropping | An agricultural technique where different crops are planted in alternating strips to reduce erosion and improve soil conservation. |
| terracing | An agricultural practice of creating step-like levels on sloped land to reduce water runoff and soil erosion. |
| windbreaks | Barriers of trees, shrubs, or other vegetation planted to reduce wind speed and prevent wind erosion of soil. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aquaculture | The farming and cultivation of fish and other aquatic organisms in controlled water environments for food production. |
| disease transmission | The spread of pathogens or illnesses from one organism to another, potentially from farmed fish to wild populations. |
| fish density | The number of fish per unit volume of water in an aquaculture system. |
| wastewater | Water that has been used in aquaculture systems and contains waste products, nutrients, and other contaminants. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| deforestation | The removal or clearing of forests, typically to make way for other land uses or to harvest timber. |
| integrated pest management (IPM) | An approach to pest control that combines multiple strategies to minimize pesticide use while reducing risks to wildlife, water supplies, human health, and the environment. |
| prescribed burn | A controlled fire set intentionally in forests to reduce fuel accumulation and decrease the risk of uncontrolled wildfires. |
| reforestation | The process of replanting trees in areas where forests have been removed or depleted. |
| sustainable forestry | Forest management practices that harvest wood while maintaining forest health, biodiversity, and the ability of forests to regenerate. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| carbon dioxide | A greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels and respiration; a principal contributor to global climate change. |
| clearcutting | A forestry practice in which all trees in an area are cut down at once, removing the entire forest cover. |
| climate change | Long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather patterns, accelerated by the release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide from deforestation. |
| flooding | The overflow of water onto land areas, often caused by increased runoff from impervious surfaces that prevents water absorption into soil. |
| pollutants | Harmful substances in the environment that are absorbed and filtered by forest trees. |
| soil erosion | The wearing away and loss of topsoil, often caused by water or wind, particularly accelerated when vegetation is removed. |
| soil temperature | The heat level of soil, which can increase when forest cover is removed and exposes soil to direct sunlight. |
| stream temperature | The heat level of water in streams, which can increase when forest shade is removed from riparian areas. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| fertilization | The application of nutrients to soil to enhance plant growth and crop productivity. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that release carbon dioxide when burned. |
| genetically modified organisms (GMOs) | Organisms whose genetic material has been altered to enhance desired traits, such as crop yield or pest resistance. |
| Green Revolution | A shift to new agricultural strategies and practices designed to increase food production, beginning in the mid-20th century. |
| irrigation | The artificial application of water to land to support agricultural production. |
| mechanization | The use of machines and mechanical equipment in farming to increase efficiency and profits. |
| pesticides | Chemical substances used to kill or control pests, which can pose risks to wildlife, water supplies, and human health. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| fertilizers | Substances added to soil to increase nutrient content for plant growth, which can cause water pollution and eutrophication when they run off into waterways. |
| slash-and-burn farming | An agricultural practice where vegetation is cut down and burned to clear land for cultivation, causing deforestation and air pollution. |
| tilling | The practice of turning over and breaking up soil, which can cause soil erosion and damage soil structure. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aquifer depletion | The severe reduction of groundwater in an aquifer due to overuse, such as for agricultural irrigation. |
| drip irrigation | An irrigation system using perforated hoses to release small amounts of water directly to plant roots; the most efficient method with only about 5% water loss but expensive to install. |
| evaporation | The process by which water transforms from liquid to vapor and is lost from soil and irrigation systems. |
| flood irrigation | An irrigation system that floods an agricultural field with water; loses about 20% of water to evaporation and runoff and can lead to waterlogging. |
| freshwater | Water with low salt content, used for human consumption, agriculture, and industry. |
| furrow irrigation | An irrigation system that involves cutting furrows between crop rows and filling them with water; inexpensive but loses about 1/3 of water to evaporation and runoff. |
| runoff | Water that flows over the soil surface and is lost from irrigation systems rather than being absorbed by plants. |
| salinization | The accumulation of salts in soil after groundwater evaporates, which can make soil toxic to plants over time. |
| spray irrigation | An irrigation system that pumps groundwater into spray nozzles across a field; more efficient than flood and furrow irrigation but more expensive and energy-intensive. |
| waterlogging | A condition where too much water sits in soil, raising the water table and inhibiting plants' ability to absorb oxygen through their roots. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| artificial selection | The process by which organisms with traits that help them survive a particular pressure (such as pesticide exposure) are more likely to reproduce, passing those traits to offspring. |
| crop yields | The amount of agricultural product harvested from a given area of land. |
| fungicides | Chemical substances used to kill or prevent fungal diseases on plants. |
| genetic diversity | The variation in genes within a population, which enables the population to respond to environmental stressors. |
| genetically modified organisms (GMOs) | Organisms whose genetic material has been altered to enhance desired traits, such as crop yield or pest resistance. |
| herbicides | Chemical substances used to kill or control unwanted plants (weeds). |
| insecticides | Chemical substances used to kill or control insects. |
| pest control | Methods and strategies used to manage, reduce, or eliminate pest populations that damage crops or other resources. |
| pesticides | Chemical substances used to kill or control pests, which can pose risks to wildlife, water supplies, and human health. |
| resistance | The ability of organisms to survive exposure to a pest control method, typically developed through repeated exposure and artificial selection. |
| rodenticides | Chemical substances used to kill rodents such as rats and mice. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) | Large-scale industrial facilities where animals are raised in confined conditions with high population density. |
| desertification | The degradation of low precipitation regions toward increasingly arid conditions until they become deserts, often caused by overgrazing or other land use practices. |
| free-range grazing | A method of meat production where animals are allowed to roam and feed on open pasture or rangeland. |
| organic waste | Decomposable animal waste produced from livestock operations that can contaminate water sources or serve as fertilizer. |
| overgrazing | The excessive grazing of livestock on pasture land, leading to vegetation depletion and soil degradation. |
| soil erosion | The wearing away and loss of topsoil, often caused by water or wind, particularly accelerated when vegetation is removed. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aquatic systems | Water-based ecosystems including oceans, rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water where fish and other organisms live. |
| biodiversity | The variety of all living organisms and species within an ecosystem, region, or the entire planet. |
| fish species scarcity | The condition where certain fish populations become extremely rare or depleted due to overfishing. |
| overfishing | The removal of fish from aquatic systems at rates faster than populations can reproduce, leading to depletion of fish stocks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| coal mining | The extraction of coal from the Earth, which can involve surface or subsurface methods. |
| ecological impacts | Effects on natural ecosystems and organisms resulting from human activities such as mining. |
| economic impacts | Effects on the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, including costs and benefits of mining operations. |
| erosion | The wearing away and removal of soil and rock by water, wind, or other natural processes, often accelerated by removal of vegetation. |
| groundwater contamination | The pollution of water found beneath the Earth's surface, often resulting from mining operations. |
| habitat destruction | The degradation or removal of natural environments where organisms live, often caused by human activities. |
| lower grade ores | Ores with lower concentrations of valuable minerals, requiring more processing to extract the desired material. |
| mining | The industrial process of extracting minerals, ores, and other valuable materials from the Earth. |
| mining wastes | Materials removed or left behind during mining operations, including soil, rocks, slag, and tailings. |
| natural resource extraction | The process of removing naturally occurring materials from the Earth for human use. |
| ore | Rock or mineral from which valuable metals or minerals can be extracted. |
| ores | Naturally occurring minerals or rocks from which metals and other valuable substances can be extracted. |
| overburden | The layer of soil and rock that must be removed to access ore deposits in surface mining operations. |
| slag | Waste material that remains after minerals have been removed from ore during the mining and processing process. |
| strip mining | A type of surface mining that removes vegetation and layers of earth in strips to expose ore underneath. |
| subsurface mining | Mining that occurs underground, used when ore deposits are deep below the surface and surface mining is not feasible. |
| surface mining | A mining method that removes large portions of soil and rock from the surface to access ore deposits underneath. |
| tailings | Fine waste material left after valuable minerals have been extracted from ore. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| energy transformation | The conversion of energy from one form to another. |
| nonrenewable energy sources | Energy sources that exist in a fixed amount and cannot be easily replaced once consumed. |
| renewable energy sources | Energy sources that can be naturally replenished at or near the rate of consumption and reused. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| electric generator | A device that converts mechanical energy (such as steam pressure) into electrical energy. |
| geothermal energy | Heat energy stored in the Earth's interior that can be extracted and used for power generation and other applications. |
| hydrogen sulfide | A toxic gas (H₂S) that can be released during geothermal energy extraction and has environmental and health impacts. |
| power generation | The process of producing electrical energy from various energy sources. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| carbon dioxide | A greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels and respiration; a principal contributor to global climate change. |
| electricity | The form of energy released by fuel cells that can be used to power devices and systems. |
| environmental impact | The effect of human activities or technologies on the natural environment, including pollution, resource depletion, and ecosystem changes. |
| hydrogen | A chemical element used as fuel in fuel cells to generate electricity. |
| hydrogen fuel cells | Devices that generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, producing water as the primary byproduct. |
| nonrenewable energy sources | Energy sources that exist in a fixed amount and cannot be easily replaced once consumed. |
| oxygen | A chemical element from the air that reacts with hydrogen in fuel cells to produce energy. |
| power generation | The process of producing electrical energy from various energy sources. |
| water | The product formed when hydrogen and oxygen combine in a fuel cell, representing a clean emission. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| kinetic energy | The energy of motion possessed by moving air in wind. |
| mechanical energy | The energy produced by the spinning turbine that is converted into electricity. |
| renewable energy sources | Energy sources that can be naturally replenished at or near the rate of consumption and reused. |
| turbine blades | The rotating blades of a wind turbine that convert kinetic energy from wind into mechanical energy. |
| wind energy | Energy derived from moving air that can be harnessed for power generation. |
| wind turbines | Machines that use the kinetic energy of moving air to generate electricity by converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| battery electric vehicles | Vehicles powered entirely by rechargeable electric batteries with no internal combustion engine. |
| conservation landscaping | Landscaping practices designed to reduce water and energy consumption, such as using native plants and reducing irrigation needs. |
| energy-efficient appliances | Household devices designed to use less energy while performing the same functions as standard appliances. |
| fuel economy | A measure of how efficiently a vehicle uses fuel, typically expressed as miles per gallon or kilometers per liter. |
| green building design | Architectural and construction practices that minimize environmental impact and energy consumption through efficient design features. |
| hybrid vehicles | Vehicles that use two or more power sources, typically combining an internal combustion engine with an electric motor. |
| public transportation | Shared transit systems such as buses, trains, and subways that transport multiple passengers and reduce individual energy consumption. |
| thermostat | A device that automatically regulates temperature by controlling heating and cooling systems in a home. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| developed country | Countries with higher levels of economic development, typically characterized by lower infant mortality rates and less reliance on child labor. |
| developing country | Countries with lower levels of economic development, typically characterized by higher infant mortality rates and greater reliance on child labor. |
| energy consumption | The amount of energy used by individuals, communities, or nations over a specific time period. |
| energy demand | The total amount of energy required by a population or economy at a given time. |
| energy resources | Sources of energy that can be used to produce power, including fossil fuels and renewable sources. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that release carbon dioxide when burned. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing in a region or country, leading to increased economic activity and energy demand. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anthracite | A type of coal with the highest carbon content and energy density, formed under the greatest heat and pressure. |
| bitumen | A thick, sticky petroleum product found in tar sands that can be extracted as crude oil. |
| bituminous coal | A type of coal with moderate carbon content and energy density, formed under moderate heat and pressure. |
| charcoal | A form of wood fuel created through partial combustion or heating of wood, used as an energy source. |
| cogeneration | The simultaneous generation of useful heat and electricity from a single fuel source. |
| crude oil | Unrefined petroleum extracted from the earth, used as an energy resource and raw material for various products. |
| firewood | Wood burned directly as a fuel source, commonly used in developing countries for heating and cooking. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that release carbon dioxide when burned. |
| lignite | A type of coal with lower carbon content and energy density, formed with less heat and pressure than other coal types. |
| methane | A greenhouse gas with global warming potential lower than nitrous oxide but higher than carbon dioxide, contributing to climate change. |
| natural gas | A fossil fuel composed mostly of methane, considered the cleanest of the fossil fuels. |
| peat | Partially decomposed organic material that can be burned as a fuel source. |
| tar sands | A combination of clay, sand, water, and bitumen from which crude oil can be recovered. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| coal | A fossil fuel formed from decomposed plant material, used as an energy resource for electricity and heat generation. |
| crude oil | Unrefined petroleum extracted from the earth, used as an energy resource and raw material for various products. |
| gas | A natural energy resource, typically natural gas, extracted from underground deposits and used for energy production. |
| geologic history | The sequence of geological events and processes that have shaped a region's rock formations and natural resources over time. |
| global distribution | The pattern of how natural resources are spread across different regions and countries worldwide. |
| natural energy resources | Energy sources found in nature that can be extracted and used, such as ores, coal, crude oil, and gas. |
| ores | Naturally occurring minerals or rocks from which metals and other valuable substances can be extracted. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| carbon dioxide | A greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels and respiration; a principal contributor to global climate change. |
| combustion | A chemical reaction between a fuel and oxygen that releases energy in the form of heat and light. |
| electricity | The form of energy released by fuel cells that can be used to power devices and systems. |
| extraction | The process of removing fossil fuels from the earth for use as energy sources. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that release carbon dioxide when burned. |
| groundwater contamination | The pollution of water found beneath the Earth's surface, often resulting from mining operations. |
| hydrologic fracturing | A process used to extract fossil fuels by injecting fluid at high pressure into rock formations to create fractures and release oil or natural gas. |
| power generation | The process of producing electrical energy from various energy sources. |
| turbine | A machine with rotating blades that converts the energy from steam into mechanical energy to generate electricity. |
| volatile organic compounds | Organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure at room temperature and can be released into the environment during fossil fuel extraction and use. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| decay | The process by which a radioactive element transforms into a different element by emitting radiation. |
| fuel rods | Cylindrical containers that store fissionable material (such as Uranium-235) in a nuclear reactor. |
| half-life | The time required for half of a radioactive element's atoms to decay into a more stable form. |
| neutron | A subatomic particle with no electric charge that strikes atomic nuclei to initiate nuclear fission. |
| nonrenewable energy source | An energy source that cannot be replenished on human timescales, such as nuclear power derived from finite uranium deposits. |
| nuclear energy | Energy released from the nucleus of an atom, used in power generation through controlled fission reactions. |
| nuclear fission | The splitting of heavy atomic nuclei (such as Uranium-235) into smaller parts after being struck by a neutron, releasing large amounts of heat. |
| nuclear waste | Hazardous solid waste produced by nuclear power generation, including spent fuel rods that remain radioactive for long periods. |
| radiation | Energetic particles or waves emitted from radioactive materials that can damage living organisms and the environment. |
| radioactive element | An element with an unstable nucleus that spontaneously emits radiation as it decays. |
| radioactive isotope | An unstable form of an element whose nucleus emits radiation as it loses energy. |
| radioactivity | The process by which unstable atomic nuclei emit radiation and decay over time. |
| thermal pollution | The release of excess heat into the environment from nuclear power plants, which can harm aquatic ecosystems. |
| turbine | A machine with rotating blades that converts the energy from steam into mechanical energy to generate electricity. |
| Uranium-235 | A radioactive isotope of uranium used as fuel in nuclear reactors for power generation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biomass | The total mass of living organisms in an ecosystem. |
| carbon dioxide | A greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels and respiration; a principal contributor to global climate change. |
| carbon monoxide | A colorless, odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion that is toxic and classified as an indoor air pollutant. |
| deforestation | The removal or clearing of forests, typically to make way for other land uses or to harvest timber. |
| energy return on energy investment | The ratio of energy produced by a fuel source compared to the energy required to produce and process that fuel; ethanol has a low ratio. |
| ethanol | A biofuel produced from plant material that can be used as a substitute for gasoline in vehicles. |
| nitrogen oxides | Gaseous compounds of nitrogen and oxygen produced primarily from motor vehicle emissions and combustion processes that contribute to photochemical smog formation. |
| particulate matter | Small solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the air that contribute to air pollution. |
| power generation | The process of producing electrical energy from various energy sources. |
| volatile organic compounds | Organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure at room temperature and can be released into the environment during fossil fuel extraction and use. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| active solar energy systems | Solar energy systems that use mechanical and electric equipment to collect, transfer, and store heat energy captured from the sun. |
| clean energy | Energy produced with little to no greenhouse gas emissions or air pollution during generation. |
| desert ecosystems | Communities of organisms and their physical environment in arid regions with low precipitation and sparse vegetation. |
| environmental impact | The effect of human activities or technologies on the natural environment, including pollution, resource depletion, and ecosystem changes. |
| passive solar energy systems | Solar energy systems that absorb heat directly from the sun without mechanical or electric equipment, and do not collect or store energy. |
| photovoltaic solar cells | Devices that capture light energy from the sun and convert it directly into electrical energy. |
| power generation | The process of producing electrical energy from various energy sources. |
| solar energy | Energy from the sun in the form of light and heat that is captured by living organisms. |
| solar energy farms | Large-scale installations of solar panels or concentrated solar systems designed to generate electricity for widespread distribution. |
| solar energy systems | Technology and infrastructure designed to capture and convert sunlight into usable energy for electricity generation or heating. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| air pollution | Contamination of the atmosphere by harmful substances such as gases, particulates, or other pollutants. |
| dams | Structures built across rivers to collect and store water in reservoirs for hydroelectric power generation. |
| habitat destruction | The degradation or removal of natural environments where organisms live, often caused by human activities. |
| hydroelectric power | Electrical power generated by converting the energy of flowing or falling water into electricity using turbines. |
| reservoir | A storage location or system that holds compounds (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, or water) for varying periods of time in biogeochemical cycles. |
| tidal energy | Energy generated by the movement of tides that is converted into electricity using turbines. |
| turbine | A machine with rotating blades that converts the energy from steam into mechanical energy to generate electricity. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| acid rain | Precipitation with elevated acidity caused by atmospheric conversion of pollutants like nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. |
| air pollutants | Harmful substances released into the atmosphere that can negatively affect air quality and human health. |
| carbon dioxide | A greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels and respiration; a principal contributor to global climate change. |
| carbon monoxide | A colorless, odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion that is toxic and classified as an indoor air pollutant. |
| Clean Air Act | U.S. legislation that authorized the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate air pollutants and protect air quality. |
| hydrocarbons | Organic compounds containing hydrogen and carbon released during fossil fuel combustion that contribute to air pollution. |
| lead | A toxic metal whose use in fuels was regulated by the EPA under the Clean Air Act, resulting in decreased atmospheric levels. |
| nitric acid | An acid formed in the atmosphere when nitrogen oxides convert, contributing to acid rain. |
| nitrogen oxides | Gaseous compounds of nitrogen and oxygen produced primarily from motor vehicle emissions and combustion processes that contribute to photochemical smog formation. |
| ozone | A secondary pollutant produced through chemical reactions between oxygen and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight, a major component of photochemical smog. |
| particulate matter | Small solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the air that contribute to air pollution. |
| photochemical smog | Air pollution formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds react with heat and sunlight to produce various pollutants. |
| primary pollutants | Air pollutants released directly into the atmosphere from pollution sources. |
| secondary pollutants | Air pollutants formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions between primary pollutants and other atmospheric components. |
| sulfur dioxide | An air pollutant released during the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal and diesel, that contributes to acid rain. |
| toxic metals | Harmful metallic elements released during coal combustion that can accumulate in the environment and organisms. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| eye irritation | A health effect caused by exposure to photochemical smog that causes discomfort and inflammation of the eyes. |
| nitrogen oxides | Gaseous compounds of nitrogen and oxygen produced primarily from motor vehicle emissions and combustion processes that contribute to photochemical smog formation. |
| ozone | A secondary pollutant produced through chemical reactions between oxygen and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight, a major component of photochemical smog. |
| photochemical smog | Air pollution formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds react with heat and sunlight to produce various pollutants. |
| respiratory problems | Health issues affecting the lungs and breathing system that can be caused by air pollutants such as tropospheric ozone. |
| volatile organic compounds | Organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure at room temperature and can be released into the environment during fossil fuel extraction and use. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| particulate matter | Small solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the air that contribute to air pollution. |
| smog | A type of air pollution formed when pollutants are trapped near the ground, typically consisting of a mixture of smoke and fog. |
| temperature gradient | The rate of change in air temperature with altitude in the atmosphere. |
| thermal inversion | An atmospheric condition where air temperature increases with altitude instead of the normal decrease, trapping cooler air near Earth's surface. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| decomposition | The process by which dead organic matter is broken down by microorganisms, releasing CO2 and other nutrients back into the environment. |
| particulate matter | Small solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the air that contribute to air pollution. |
| respiration | The metabolic process by which organisms break down organic molecules to release energy, producing CO2 as a byproduct. |
| volcanic eruptions | Explosive or effusive events where magma and gases, including CO2, are released from the Earth's interior into the atmosphere. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| asbestos | A mineral substance that causes mesothelioma and other health problems when inhaled. |
| asphyxiant | A substance that causes asphyxiation by displacing oxygen or preventing oxygen uptake, such as carbon monoxide. |
| carbon monoxide | A colorless, odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion that is toxic and classified as an indoor air pollutant. |
| formaldehyde | A human-made chemical found in building materials, furniture, and carpeting that functions as an indoor air pollutant. |
| indoor air pollutants | Harmful substances or contaminants found in the air inside buildings that can negatively affect human health. |
| lead | A toxic metal whose use in fuels was regulated by the EPA under the Clean Air Act, resulting in decreased atmospheric levels. |
| mold | A fungal growth that occurs naturally indoors and serves as an indoor air pollutant. |
| nitrogen oxides | Gaseous compounds of nitrogen and oxygen produced primarily from motor vehicle emissions and combustion processes that contribute to photochemical smog formation. |
| particulate matter | Small solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the air that contribute to air pollution. |
| radon | A naturally occurring radioactive gas produced by uranium decay in rocks and soils that accumulates indoors as an air pollutant. |
| radon gas | A naturally occurring radioactive gas that can infiltrate homes through soil, basements, cracks in foundations, and groundwater. |
| Radon-222 | A specific radioactive isotope of radon produced by uranium decay that accumulates as a naturally occurring indoor air pollutant. |
| radon-induced lung cancer | A type of lung cancer caused by prolonged exposure to radon gas, the second leading cause of lung cancer in America. |
| sulfur dioxide | An air pollutant released during the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal and diesel, that contributes to acid rain. |
| tobacco smoke | Smoke produced by burning tobacco that serves as a combustion-related indoor air pollutant. |
| volatile organic compounds | Organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure at room temperature and can be released into the environment during fossil fuel extraction and use. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| air pollutants | Harmful substances released into the atmosphere that can negatively affect air quality and human health. |
| alternative fuels | Energy sources other than fossil fuels, such as renewable or cleaner-burning fuels, used to reduce air pollution. |
| catalytic converter | An air pollution control device in internal combustion engines that converts harmful pollutants (CO, NOx, and hydrocarbons) into less harmful substances (CO2, N2, O2, and H2O). |
| conservation practices | Actions taken to reduce resource consumption and minimize pollution through efficient use of energy and materials. |
| dry scrubber | An air pollution control device that removes particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams without using liquid. |
| electrostatic precipitator | An air pollution control device that removes particulates from industrial exhaust streams using electrical charges. |
| regulatory practices | Government-enforced rules and standards designed to control and reduce air pollution emissions. |
| vapor recovery nozzle | An air pollution control device on gasoline pumps that prevents fuel vapors from escaping into the atmosphere during vehicle refueling. |
| wet scrubber | An air pollution control device that removes particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams using liquid. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| acid deposition | The process by which acidic compounds from the atmosphere are deposited on Earth's surface through precipitation or dry deposition. |
| acid rain | Precipitation with elevated acidity caused by atmospheric conversion of pollutants like nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. |
| acidification | The process by which soils and bodies of water become more acidic due to the addition of acidic compounds. |
| anthropogenic sources | Acid deposition precursors that originate from human activities, such as vehicle emissions and industrial processes. |
| coal-burning power plants | Industrial facilities that burn coal for electricity generation and emit both nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide contributing to acid deposition. |
| corrosion | The gradual wearing away or deterioration of materials, such as human-made structures, due to chemical reactions with acids. |
| limestone bedrock | A calcium carbonate-based rock formation that can neutralize acidic compounds and buffer the effects of acid rain on aquatic systems. |
| motor vehicles | Transportation sources that emit nitric oxides contributing to acid deposition. |
| neutralize | To counteract or reduce the acidity of a substance by adding a base or alkaline material. |
| nitric oxides | Nitrogen oxide compounds that cause acid deposition, primarily emitted from motor vehicles and coal-burning power plants. |
| nitrogen oxides | Gaseous compounds of nitrogen and oxygen produced primarily from motor vehicle emissions and combustion processes that contribute to photochemical smog formation. |
| sulfur dioxide | An air pollutant released during the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal and diesel, that contributes to acid rain. |
| sulfur oxides | Gaseous compounds containing sulfur and oxygen that contribute to acid deposition, primarily from coal-burning power plants. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| construction | Building and development activities that generate significant noise pollution in urban environments. |
| domestic activity | Household-related activities that contribute to noise pollution in residential areas. |
| hearing loss | Partial or complete reduction in the ability to perceive sound, often caused by exposure to loud noise. |
| industrial activity | Manufacturing and factory operations that produce noise pollution in urban and surrounding areas. |
| migratory routes | Established pathways that animals follow during seasonal migration, which can be disrupted by noise pollution. |
| noise pollution | Sound at levels high enough to cause physiological stress and hearing loss in organisms. |
| physiological stress | Physical strain on an organism's body systems that can result from environmental conditions outside its tolerance range. |
| sound masking | The obscuring of sounds used by animals for communication or hunting due to background noise. |
| transportation | Movement of people and goods by vehicles, a major source of noise pollution in urban areas. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| air pollutants | Harmful substances released into the atmosphere that can negatively affect air quality and human health. |
| nonpoint source | A diffused source of pollution that is difficult to identify, such as pesticide spraying or urban runoff. |
| point source | A single, identifiable source of pollution, such as a smokestack or waste discharge pipe. |
| urban runoff | Water from precipitation that flows over urban surfaces such as pavement and roofs, carrying pollutants into water systems rather than infiltrating into the ground. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| composting | The process of organic matter such as food scraps, paper, and yard waste decomposing into a product that can be used as fertilizer. |
| electronic waste | Electronic waste from discarded electronic devices that may contain hazardous chemicals including heavy metals such as lead and mercury. |
| heavy metals | Dense metallic elements such as mercury, lead, and cadmium that are toxic to organisms and can accumulate in ecosystems. |
| landfill gas combustion | The burning of gases produced from decomposition of organic material in landfills to generate electricity and reduce landfill volume. |
| landfill mitigation strategies | Methods used to reduce the negative impacts of landfills, ranging from burning waste for energy to restoring habitat on former landfills. |
| leaching | The process by which hazardous chemicals and heavy metals from landfills seep into groundwater. |
| organic matter | Biodegradable material in sewage that bacteria break down during secondary treatment. |
| recycling | A process by which certain solid waste materials are processed and converted into new products to reduce demand on natural resources. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aeration | The process of introducing air into sewage treatment tanks to increase the rate at which bacteria break down organic matter. |
| disinfection | The process of exposing treated water to disinfectants such as chlorine, ozone, or UV light to kill bacteria before discharge. |
| inorganic sludge | Solid waste produced when bacteria break down organic matter during secondary treatment, which settles at the bottom of a tank. |
| organic matter | Biodegradable material in sewage that bacteria break down during secondary treatment. |
| primary treatment | The first stage of sewage treatment involving physical removal of large objects through screens and grates, followed by settling of solid waste in a tank. |
| secondary treatment | A biological process in sewage treatment where bacteria break down organic matter into carbon dioxide and inorganic sludge, with aeration to increase the rate of decomposition. |
| tertiary treatment | The use of ecological or chemical processes to remove remaining pollutants from water after primary and secondary treatment. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| chemical | A substance with a definite molecular composition that can cause toxic effects in organisms. |
| dose | The amount of a toxin or drug administered to or received by an organism. |
| lethal dose 50% (LD50) | The dose of a chemical that is lethal to 50% of the population of a particular species. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| dose | The amount of a toxin or drug administered to or received by an organism. |
| dose response curve | A graph that describes the relationship between the dose of a toxin or drug and its effect on an organism or mortality rate in a population. |
| mortality rate | The proportion or number of deaths in a population resulting from exposure to a particular substance or condition. |
| toxin | A poisonous substance that can cause harmful effects or death in an organism. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| asbestos | A mineral substance that causes mesothelioma and other health problems when inhaled. |
| dysentery | A disease caused by untreated sewage in streams and rivers that affects the digestive system. |
| mesothelioma | A type of cancer caused mainly by exposure to asbestos. |
| respiratory problems | Health issues affecting the lungs and breathing system that can be caused by air pollutants such as tropospheric ozone. |
| tropospheric ozone | Ground-level ozone in the lower atmosphere that can impair respiratory function and lung health when present at elevated levels. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cholera | A bacterial disease contracted from infected water supplies. |
| climate zones | Geographic regions characterized by distinct temperature and precipitation patterns that influence the distribution of pathogens and diseases. |
| contaminated drinking water | Water supplies that contain harmful pathogens or pollutants and pose a risk to human health. |
| infectious diseases | Diseases caused by pathogens that can be transmitted from one organism to another. |
| malaria | A parasitic disease transmitted to humans through bites from infected mosquitoes. |
| MERS | Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, a viral respiratory illness transmitted from animals to humans. |
| pathogen adaptation | The process by which pathogens evolve to exploit new opportunities to infect and spread through human populations. |
| pathogens | Organisms or agents that cause disease in humans and other organisms. |
| plague | A bacterial disease transmitted to humans through bites from infected organisms or contact with contaminated fluids or tissues. |
| sanitary conditions | Environmental conditions related to cleanliness and hygiene that affect disease transmission. |
| sanitary waste disposal | The safe and hygienic removal and treatment of human waste to prevent disease transmission. |
| SARS | Severe acute respiratory syndrome, a form of pneumonia transmitted by inhaling or touching infected fluids. |
| tuberculosis | A bacterial infection that typically attacks the lungs and is spread through inhalation of bacteria from an infected person's bodily fluids. |
| vectors | Organisms that transmit pathogens from one host to another, such as mosquitoes or fleas. |
| West Nile virus | A viral disease transmitted to humans through bites from infected mosquitoes. |
| Zika | A virus transmitted to humans through bites from infected mosquitoes and through sexual contact. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aquatic ecosystems | Water-based ecosystems including oceans, rivers, lakes, and wetlands that support diverse organisms and ecological processes. |
| coral reefs | Marine ecosystems built by coral organisms that provide habitat for diverse species and are sensitive to temperature changes, sediment, and fishing practices. |
| dead zones | Areas in oceans with very low dissolved oxygen levels caused by excess nutrient pollution, making them unable to support most aquatic life. |
| destructive fishing practices | Fishing methods that damage marine ecosystems, including coral reefs and seafloor habitats. |
| dissolved oxygen | Oxygen gas dissolved in water that aquatic organisms require for respiration; levels decrease during eutrophication as microbes decompose dead algae. |
| food chain | A linear sequence showing the transfer of energy and nutrients from one organism to the next, starting with a producer and moving through consumers. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that release carbon dioxide when burned. |
| groundwater | Water stored beneath Earth's surface in soil and rock layers, serving as a smaller reservoir in the hydrologic cycle. |
| heavy metals | Dense metallic elements such as mercury, lead, and cadmium that are toxic to organisms and can accumulate in ecosystems. |
| homeostasis | The ability of an organism to maintain stable internal conditions despite changes in the external environment. |
| hydrocarbons | Organic compounds containing hydrogen and carbon released during fossil fuel combustion that contribute to air pollution. |
| intestinal blockage | A condition in animals caused by ingesting litter or debris that prevents normal digestion and can be fatal. |
| light infiltration | The penetration of sunlight through water, which is necessary for photosynthesis by aquatic primary producers. |
| litter | Solid waste that enters aquatic ecosystems and can harm wildlife through ingestion or entanglement. |
| mercury | A toxic heavy metal that bioaccumulates in organisms and biomagnifies through food chains, causing neurological and reproductive harm. |
| methylmercury | A highly toxic organic form of mercury created by bacteria in aquatic environments that accumulates in organisms and food chains. |
| mining | The industrial process of extracting minerals, ores, and other valuable materials from the Earth. |
| nutrient pollution | Excess nitrogen and phosphorus in water that causes algal blooms and subsequent oxygen depletion. |
| ocean temperature | The thermal conditions of ocean water that influence atmospheric temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns. |
| oil spills | The release of crude oil or refined petroleum into marine waters, causing harm to organisms and ecosystems. |
| optimum range | The specific conditions for an environmental factor where an organism can best maintain homeostasis and function most effectively. |
| oxygen sag curve | A graph showing how dissolved oxygen levels decrease and then recover with distance from a pollution source in a waterway. |
| physiological stress | Physical strain on an organism's body systems that can result from environmental conditions outside its tolerance range. |
| primary producers | Aquatic organisms such as algae and aquatic plants that produce energy through photosynthesis and form the base of aquatic food chains. |
| range of tolerance | The limits within which an organism can survive and function for a particular environmental factor, beyond which stress or death occurs. |
| sediment runoff | Soil and rock particles that wash into waterways from land, reducing water clarity and damaging aquatic habitats. |
| visual predators | Predators that rely on sight to locate and capture prey, which are hindered by reduced water clarity from sediment. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| birth defects | Structural or functional abnormalities present at birth that result from developmental problems during pregnancy. |
| developmental disorders | Conditions that impair the normal physical, cognitive, or behavioral development of an organism. |
| endocrine disruptors | Chemical substances that interfere with the normal functioning of the endocrine system, disrupting hormone production and regulation in organisms. |
| endocrine system | The body system composed of glands and hormones that regulates growth, metabolism, reproduction, and other physiological processes in animals. |
| gender imbalances | Abnormal ratios of males to females in a population, often caused by disruption of sex determination or reproductive processes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| commercial development | A human activity that threatens wetlands and mangroves through land conversion for business and urban expansion. |
| dam construction | A human activity that threatens wetlands by altering water flow and hydrology. |
| ecosystem services | The benefits that humans receive from natural ecosystems, including resources, regulation of environmental processes, and cultural values. |
| flood protection | An ecosystem service provided by wetlands that reduces the impact of flooding events. |
| mangroves | Coastal ecosystems that provide ecosystem services and are threatened by human activities such as commercial development and overfishing. |
| overfishing | The removal of fish from aquatic systems at rates faster than populations can reproduce, leading to depletion of fish stocks. |
| pollutants | Harmful substances in the environment that are absorbed and filtered by forest trees. |
| water filtration | An ecosystem service provided by wetlands that removes particles and pollutants from water. |
| water purification | An ecosystem service provided by wetlands that removes contaminants and improves water quality. |
| wetlands | Areas where water covers the soil for at least part of the year, providing ecosystem services such as water purification and habitat. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural runoff | Water flowing from agricultural land that carries fertilizers, pesticides, and other pollutants into aquatic ecosystems, contributing to eutrophication. |
| algal bloom | A rapid increase in algae population in a water body, typically caused by excess nutrients, which can deplete oxygen when the algae die and decompose. |
| anthropogenic causes | Environmental changes or substances caused by human activities, such as the release of CFCs into the atmosphere. |
| aquatic ecosystems | Water-based ecosystems including oceans, rivers, lakes, and wetlands that support diverse organisms and ecological processes. |
| detergents | Cleaning agents that contain phosphorus and other nutrients and can contribute to nutrient pollution in aquatic ecosystems when released into waterways. |
| dissolved oxygen | Oxygen gas dissolved in water that aquatic organisms require for respiration; levels decrease during eutrophication as microbes decompose dead algae. |
| eutrophication | The process by which a body of water becomes enriched with excessive nutrients, leading to algal blooms and oxygen depletion. |
| fertilizers | Substances added to soil to increase nutrient content for plant growth, which can cause water pollution and eutrophication when they run off into waterways. |
| hypoxic waterways | Bodies of water with low dissolved oxygen levels, often resulting from eutrophication and unable to support most aquatic life. |
| nutrients | Chemical elements or compounds, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, that promote the growth of plants and algae in aquatic environments. |
| oligotrophic waterways | Bodies of water with very low nutrient levels, stable algae populations, and high dissolved oxygen, representing the opposite condition of eutrophic waterways. |
| wastewater release | The discharge of treated or untreated water from human activities containing nutrients and other pollutants into aquatic environments. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aquatic ecosystems | Water-based ecosystems including oceans, rivers, lakes, and wetlands that support diverse organisms and ecological processes. |
| dissolved oxygen | Oxygen gas dissolved in water that aquatic organisms require for respiration; levels decrease during eutrophication as microbes decompose dead algae. |
| thermal pollution | The release of excess heat into the environment from nuclear power plants, which can harm aquatic ecosystems. |
| water temperature | The measure of thermal energy in water, which affects the solubility of oxygen and metabolic rates of aquatic organisms. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bioaccumulation | The process by which a persistent substance accumulates in the tissues of an organism over time, increasing in concentration as the organism is exposed to the substance. |
| DDT | A persistent pesticide that bioaccumulates in organisms and biomagnifies through food chains, causing significant environmental damage. |
| fat solubility | The ability of persistent organic pollutants to dissolve in and accumulate within fatty tissues of organisms. |
| long-distance transport | The movement of persistent organic pollutants over great distances through wind and water, allowing them to spread globally. |
| persistent organic pollutants (POPs) | Synthetic, carbon-based molecules that do not easily break down in the environment and can accumulate in organisms' fatty tissues, causing toxic effects. |
| polychlorinated biphenyls | Polychlorinated biphenyls; persistent industrial chemicals that bioaccumulate and biomagnify, causing reproductive, nervous, and circulatory system damage. |
| synthetic molecules | Human-made chemical compounds, such as DDT and PCBs, that are resistant to natural breakdown in the environment. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bioaccumulation | The process by which a persistent substance accumulates in the tissues of an organism over time, increasing in concentration as the organism is exposed to the substance. |
| biomagnification | The process by which the concentration of a persistent substance increases at each successive trophic level in a food chain. |
| DDT | A persistent pesticide that bioaccumulates in organisms and biomagnifies through food chains, causing significant environmental damage. |
| developmental deformities | Abnormal physical or physiological development in organisms caused by exposure to biomagnified toxic substances. |
| eggshell thinning | A condition in birds where persistent substances in the environment cause eggshells to become thinner and more fragile, reducing reproductive success. |
| fat-soluble compounds | Chemical substances that dissolve in fats or lipids and are commonly subject to bioaccumulation in living organisms. |
| food chain | A linear sequence showing the transfer of energy and nutrients from one organism to the next, starting with a producer and moving through consumers. |
| food web | A model depicting interlocking patterns of multiple food chains that shows the complex flow of energy and nutrients among organisms in an ecosystem. |
| mercury | A toxic heavy metal that bioaccumulates in organisms and biomagnifies through food chains, causing neurological and reproductive harm. |
| persistent substance | A chemical that resists breakdown in the environment and accumulates in organisms over time. |
| polychlorinated biphenyls | Polychlorinated biphenyls; persistent industrial chemicals that bioaccumulate and biomagnify, causing reproductive, nervous, and circulatory system damage. |
| top carnivores | Predators at the highest trophic level of a food chain that accumulate the highest concentrations of biomagnified substances. |
| trophic level | The position an organism occupies in a food chain or food web, determined by the number of energy transfer steps from the primary producer. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| air pollutants | Harmful substances released into the atmosphere that can negatively affect air quality and human health. |
| electronic waste | Electronic waste from discarded electronic devices that may contain hazardous chemicals including heavy metals such as lead and mercury. |
| groundwater contamination | The pollution of water found beneath the Earth's surface, often resulting from mining operations. |
| incineration | A waste disposal method in which solid waste is burned at high temperatures, significantly reducing its volume while releasing air pollutants. |
| landfill decomposition | The breakdown of waste materials in a landfill through microbial activity, influenced by trash composition and environmental conditions. |
| landfills | Designated areas where solid waste is disposed of and buried, which can release methane and carbon dioxide as organic matter decomposes. |
| leachate | Liquid that percolates through solid waste in a landfill and can carry contaminants into groundwater. |
| methane | A greenhouse gas with global warming potential lower than nitrous oxide but higher than carbon dioxide, contributing to climate change. |
| microbial decomposition | The process by which microorganisms break down organic waste materials. |
| ocean dumping | The practice of disposing of waste by depositing it into the ocean. |
| plastic pollution | The accumulation of plastic waste in the environment, including large floating islands of trash in oceans. |
| sanitary landfills | A engineered landfill designed with a bottom liner, storm water collection system, leachate collection system, cap, and methane collection system to minimize environmental impact. |
| solid waste | Any discarded material that is not a liquid or gas, generated from domestic, industrial, business, and agricultural sectors. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biodiversity | The variety of all living organisms and species within an ecosystem, region, or the entire planet. |
| climate change | Long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather patterns, accelerated by the release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide from deforestation. |
| domestication | The process of breeding and managing organisms for human economic benefit, which can negatively impact the biodiversity of wild populations. |
| habitat corridors | Strips of connected habitat that allow organisms to move between fragmented areas, maintaining genetic diversity and population connectivity. |
| habitat destruction | The degradation or removal of natural environments where organisms live, often caused by human activities. |
| habitat fragmentation | The breaking up of large, continuous habitats into smaller, isolated patches that reduces connectivity for organisms. |
| habitat restoration | The process of rehabilitating degraded or lost habitats to restore their ecological function and support biodiversity. |
| HIPPCO | An acronym representing the six main factors causing biodiversity loss: Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Population growth, Pollution, Climate change, and Over-exploitation. |
| invasive species | Non-native organisms introduced to an ecosystem that outcompete native species for resources and can disrupt ecological balance. |
| over-exploitation | The excessive harvesting or use of a species or resource beyond its ability to sustain itself. |
| pollution | The introduction of harmful substances or contaminants into the environment that degrade ecosystems and harm organisms. |
| protected areas | Designated regions where ecosystems and species are legally protected from development and exploitation to conserve biodiversity. |
| sea level rise | An increase in ocean water height caused by thermal expansion of seawater and melting of ice sheets and glaciers. |
| sustainable land use practices | Methods of using land that meet current human needs while preserving ecosystems and biodiversity for future generations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anthropogenic causes | Environmental changes or substances caused by human activities, such as the release of CFCs into the atmosphere. |
| cataracts | A clouding of the eye lens in humans that can develop from exposure to increased UV rays. |
| chlorofluorocarbons | Synthetic chemicals containing chlorine, fluorine, and carbon that were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and aerosols but are known to deplete the ozone layer. |
| skin cancer | A health condition in humans that can result from increased exposure to UV rays due to stratospheric ozone depletion. |
| stratospheric ozone layer | A region of the Earth's atmosphere containing high concentrations of ozone that protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet radiation. |
| UV rays | Ultraviolet radiation from the sun that can reach the Earth's surface and cause damage to living organisms. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| chlorofluorocarbons | Synthetic chemicals containing chlorine, fluorine, and carbon that were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and aerosols but are known to deplete the ozone layer. |
| hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) | Synthetic chemicals containing hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon that serve as replacements for CFCs and do not deplete the ozone layer, though some are potent greenhouse gases. |
| ozone depletion | The reduction in the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere, primarily caused by the release of ozone-depleting chemicals. |
| ozone-depleting chemicals | Substances that break down ozone molecules in the stratosphere, reducing the ozone layer's ability to protect Earth from ultraviolet radiation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| carbon dioxide | A greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels and respiration; a principal contributor to global climate change. |
| chlorofluorocarbons | Synthetic chemicals containing chlorine, fluorine, and carbon that were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and aerosols but are known to deplete the ozone layer. |
| global warming potential (GWP) | A measure used to compare the ability of different greenhouse gases to trap heat in the atmosphere relative to carbon dioxide, which has a GWP of 1. |
| greenhouse effect | The process by which greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, maintaining surface temperatures necessary for life on Earth. |
| greenhouse gases | Atmospheric gases that trap heat by absorbing and re-radiating infrared radiation, including carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons. |
| methane | A greenhouse gas with global warming potential lower than nitrous oxide but higher than carbon dioxide, contributing to climate change. |
| nitrous oxide | A greenhouse gas with significant global warming potential, ranking second only to chlorofluorocarbons in potency among the gases discussed. |
| residence time | The average length of time a gas molecule remains in the atmosphere before being removed or transformed. |
| water vapor | A greenhouse gas present in the atmosphere that has a short residence time and does not significantly contribute to long-term global climate change. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| disease vectors | Organisms, typically insects, that transmit infectious diseases from one host to another. |
| global climate change | Long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather patterns caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. |
| greenhouse gases | Atmospheric gases that trap heat by absorbing and re-radiating infrared radiation, including carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons. |
| melting ice sheets | The process of large continental ice masses thawing and releasing water into the ocean, contributing to rising sea levels. |
| ocean water expansion | The increase in volume of seawater as it warms, contributing to rising sea levels independent of melting ice. |
| population dynamics | Changes in the size, structure, and distribution of populations over time in response to environmental factors. |
| population movements | Migration or displacement of human populations in response to environmental changes or resource availability. |
| sea level rise | An increase in ocean water height caused by thermal expansion of seawater and melting of ice sheets and glaciers. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| albedo | The reflectivity of ice and snow that reflects solar energy back to space; reduced albedo occurs as ice melts, causing more warming. |
| Arctic | The polar region in the Northern Hemisphere where rapid climate change response occurs due to positive feedback loops involving ice and tundra. |
| atmospheric circulation | The large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere driven by differences in solar heating and the Coriolis effect. |
| erosion | The wearing away and removal of soil and rock by water, wind, or other natural processes, often accelerated by removal of vegetation. |
| Hadley cells | Large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns in the tropics that can be affected by climate change and temperature variations. |
| jet stream | Fast-moving rivers of air in the upper atmosphere that can be impacted by climate change and temperature changes. |
| marine ecosystems | Ocean-based ecosystems that are affected by changes in sea level, temperature, and other climate factors. |
| methane | A greenhouse gas with global warming potential lower than nitrous oxide but higher than carbon dioxide, contributing to climate change. |
| ocean conveyor belt | A global system of oceanic currents that circulates heat throughout the world's oceans. |
| oceanic currents | Large-scale movements of ocean water that transport heat throughout the world and influence global climate patterns. |
| photic zone | The upper layer of the ocean where sunlight penetrates and photosynthesis can occur. |
| polar regions | The Arctic and Antarctic areas of Earth that show faster response times to climate change due to ice and snow reflectivity. |
| positive feedback loop | A process where climate change effects (such as melting ice) amplify further warming, accelerating climate change. |
| sea ice | Ice formed from frozen seawater in polar regions that melts as Earth warms, contributing to positive feedback loops. |
| sea level | The average height of the ocean's surface, which can change due to climate change and affect coastal habitats. |
| soil viability | The ability of soil to support plant growth and ecosystem functions, which can be impacted by climate-driven changes in temperature and rainfall. |
| tundra | A terrestrial biome at high latitudes or high altitudes with permanently frozen soil, low precipitation, and vegetation adapted to extreme cold. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| algae | The major photosynthetic organisms in aquatic biomes that form the base of aquatic food webs. |
| coral bleaching | The process by which corals lose their symbiotic algae and turn white, typically caused by ocean warming stress. |
| greenhouse gases | Atmospheric gases that trap heat by absorbing and re-radiating infrared radiation, including carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons. |
| habitat destruction | The degradation or removal of natural environments where organisms live, often caused by human activities. |
| marine species | Organisms that live in ocean environments and are affected by changes in ocean conditions. |
| metabolic changes | Alterations in the chemical processes that organisms use to obtain and use energy, which can be triggered by ocean warming. |
| ocean warming | The increase in average temperature of Earth's oceans caused by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. |
| reproductive changes | Alterations in the breeding and reproduction patterns of organisms in response to environmental stressors like ocean warming. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anthropogenic activities | Human actions and processes that cause changes to the environment, including industrial production, agriculture, and resource extraction. |
| calcium carbonate | A compound used by corals and other marine organisms to form shells and skeletal structures. |
| CO2 concentrations | The amount of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere or dissolved in water. |
| coral | Marine organisms that form reef structures and are sensitive to changes in ocean chemistry and temperature. |
| deforestation | The removal or clearing of forests, typically to make way for other land uses or to harvest timber. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that release carbon dioxide when burned. |
| ocean acidification | The decrease in pH of the oceans primarily caused by increased CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere. |
| pH | A measure of how acidic or basic a substance is on a scale from 0 to 14. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| generalist species | Species that can survive and reproduce in a wide variety of environmental conditions and food sources, and tend to be advantaged in changing habitats. |
| human interventions | Deliberate actions taken by humans to manage or control invasive species populations. |
| invasive species | Non-native organisms introduced to an ecosystem that outcompete native species for resources and can disrupt ecological balance. |
| native species | Species that naturally occur and belong in a particular habitat or ecosystem. |
| outcompete | To surpass other species in competition for limited resources such as food, space, or light. |
| r-selected species | Species that tend to be small, produce many offspring, invest minimal energy in each offspring, mature early, have short lifespans, and may reproduce only once in their lifetime, typically in environments with low resource competition. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| adapt | The process by which organisms develop traits or behaviors that allow them to survive and reproduce in their environment. |
| competition | The struggle between organisms in an ecosystem for limited resources such as food, territory, mates, and habitat. |
| endangered | A classification for species that face a high risk of extinction in the near future due to declining populations or threats to their survival. |
| extinction | The permanent disappearance of a species from Earth when the last individual organism dies. |
| fitness | The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce successfully in its environment, passing its genes to the next generation. |
| habitat | The specific environment or place where an organism or species naturally lives and obtains the resources it needs to survive. |
| habitat protection | Conservation strategies that preserve and maintain the natural environments where species live to ensure their survival. |
| invasive species | Non-native organisms introduced to an ecosystem that outcompete native species for resources and can disrupt ecological balance. |
| legislation | Laws and regulations enacted to protect endangered species and their habitats from harm and exploitation. |
| poaching | The illegal hunting or capture of wildlife, often for profit or personal use. |
| selective pressure | Any environmental factor that changes the behaviors and fitness of organisms within a population, influencing which traits become more or less common. |
| threatened | A conservation status for species that are likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future if current trends continue. |
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