| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| carbon cycle | The biogeochemical process by which carbon moves between the atmosphere, living organisms, soil, and water systems. |
| carbon dioxide | A greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels and respiration; a principal contributor to global climate change. |
| flooding | The overflow of water onto land areas, often caused by increased runoff from impervious surfaces that prevents water absorption into soil. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that release carbon dioxide when burned. |
| hydrologic cycle | The continuous movement of water in its various solid, liquid, and gaseous phases between Earth's surface and the atmosphere, powered by solar energy. |
| impervious surfaces | Human-made structures such as roads, buildings, sidewalks, and parking lots that prevent water infiltration into the soil. |
| landfills | Designated areas where solid waste is disposed of and buried, which can release methane and carbon dioxide as organic matter decomposes. |
| population density | The number of people living in a given area, used to distinguish between densely populated urban centers and sparsely populated rural regions. |
| resource depletion | The reduction or exhaustion of natural resources due to overuse or extraction. |
| saltwater intrusion | The movement of saltwater into freshwater aquifers and groundwater supplies, typically caused by excessive groundwater extraction in coastal areas. |
| urban sprawl | The uncontrolled expansion of urban development into surrounding rural and agricultural areas, characterized by low-density suburban growth. |
| urbanization | The process of population growth and development that transforms rural areas into urban centers with increased human settlement and infrastructure. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| common good | The collective well-being and benefit of a community or society as a whole, rather than individual advantage. |
| resource depletion | The reduction or exhaustion of natural resources due to overuse or extraction. |
| self-interest | Individual motivation to maximize personal benefit or gain, often at the expense of collective welfare. |
| shared resources | Natural or common resources that are accessible to multiple individuals or groups and not owned by any single entity. |
| tragedy of the commons | A concept describing how individuals acting in their own self-interest may deplete shared resources, ultimately harming the common good and the sustainability of those resources. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| ecological footprint | A measure that compares the resource demands and waste production of an individual or society to the Earth's capacity to provide those resources and absorb that waste. |
| resource demands | The amount and types of natural resources required to support the consumption and activities of an individual or society. |
| waste production | The quantity and types of waste generated by an individual or society through consumption and daily activities. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biological diversity | The variety of different species and ecosystems present in an environment. |
| environmental indicators | Measurable factors such as biological diversity, food production, temperature, and CO₂ concentrations that guide humans toward sustainable practices. |
| renewable resource | A natural resource that can be replenished or regenerated over time if managed sustainably. |
| resource depletion | The reduction or exhaustion of natural resources due to overuse or extraction. |
| sustainability | The ability of humans to live on Earth and use resources without depleting them for future generations. |
| sustainable yield | The amount of a renewable resource that can be harvested or used without reducing the available supply for the future. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| mitigation | Actions taken to reduce the severity or impact of environmental problems. |
| permeable pavement | Paving material that allows water to pass through it into the soil below, reducing runoff and increasing water infiltration. |
| urban runoff | Water from precipitation that flows over urban surfaces such as pavement and roofs, carrying pollutants into water systems rather than infiltrating into the ground. |
| water infiltration | The process by which water soaks into the soil and groundwater rather than flowing across the surface as runoff. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biocontrol | The use of biological organisms or natural enemies to control pest populations. |
| crop rotation | The practice of growing different crops in succession on the same land to reduce pest populations and maintain soil fertility. |
| human health | The physical and physiological well-being of people, which can be threatened by pesticide exposure and environmental disruptions. |
| integrated pest management (IPM) | An approach to pest control that combines multiple strategies to minimize pesticide use while reducing risks to wildlife, water supplies, human health, and the environment. |
| intercropping | The practice of growing two or more crop species in the same area to manage pests and improve soil health. |
| natural predators | Organisms that hunt and consume pest species, helping to control their populations naturally. |
| pest species | Organisms that damage crops, spread disease, or otherwise negatively impact human interests. |
| pesticides | Chemical substances used to kill or control pests, which can pose risks to wildlife, water supplies, and human health. |
| water supplies | Sources of water for human use that can be contaminated by pesticides and other pollutants. |
| wildlife | Wild animals and organisms in natural ecosystems that can be affected by pesticide use and environmental disruptions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| contour plowing | An agricultural technique where fields are plowed along the contours of the land to reduce water runoff and soil erosion. |
| crop rotation | The practice of growing different crops in succession on the same land to reduce pest populations and maintain soil fertility. |
| green manure | Crops, typically legumes, that are grown and plowed back into the soil to increase nitrogen content and improve soil fertility. |
| limestone | A mineral added to soil to neutralize acidity and improve soil fertility for crop production. |
| no-till agriculture | A farming practice that minimizes soil disturbance by planting crops without plowing, reducing erosion and preserving soil structure. |
| overgrazing | The excessive grazing of livestock on pasture land, leading to vegetation depletion and soil degradation. |
| perennial crops | Plants that live for more than two years and do not require replanting annually, helping to stabilize soil. |
| rotational grazing | The practice of moving livestock between different pastures at regular intervals to prevent overgrazing and allow vegetation recovery. |
| soil conservation | Practices and methods used to prevent soil erosion and maintain soil quality for agricultural use. |
| soil erosion | The wearing away and loss of topsoil, often caused by water or wind, particularly accelerated when vegetation is removed. |
| soil fertility | The capacity of soil to provide essential nutrients and favorable conditions for plant growth and productivity. |
| strip cropping | An agricultural technique where different crops are planted in alternating strips to reduce erosion and improve soil conservation. |
| terracing | An agricultural practice of creating step-like levels on sloped land to reduce water runoff and soil erosion. |
| windbreaks | Barriers of trees, shrubs, or other vegetation planted to reduce wind speed and prevent wind erosion of soil. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aquaculture | The farming and cultivation of fish and other aquatic organisms in controlled water environments for food production. |
| disease transmission | The spread of pathogens or illnesses from one organism to another, potentially from farmed fish to wild populations. |
| fish density | The number of fish per unit volume of water in an aquaculture system. |
| wastewater | Water that has been used in aquaculture systems and contains waste products, nutrients, and other contaminants. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| deforestation | The removal or clearing of forests, typically to make way for other land uses or to harvest timber. |
| integrated pest management (IPM) | An approach to pest control that combines multiple strategies to minimize pesticide use while reducing risks to wildlife, water supplies, human health, and the environment. |
| prescribed burn | A controlled fire set intentionally in forests to reduce fuel accumulation and decrease the risk of uncontrolled wildfires. |
| reforestation | The process of replanting trees in areas where forests have been removed or depleted. |
| sustainable forestry | Forest management practices that harvest wood while maintaining forest health, biodiversity, and the ability of forests to regenerate. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| carbon dioxide | A greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fossil fuels and respiration; a principal contributor to global climate change. |
| clearcutting | A forestry practice in which all trees in an area are cut down at once, removing the entire forest cover. |
| climate change | Long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather patterns, accelerated by the release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide from deforestation. |
| flooding | The overflow of water onto land areas, often caused by increased runoff from impervious surfaces that prevents water absorption into soil. |
| pollutants | Harmful substances in the environment that are absorbed and filtered by forest trees. |
| soil erosion | The wearing away and loss of topsoil, often caused by water or wind, particularly accelerated when vegetation is removed. |
| soil temperature | The heat level of soil, which can increase when forest cover is removed and exposes soil to direct sunlight. |
| stream temperature | The heat level of water in streams, which can increase when forest shade is removed from riparian areas. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| fertilization | The application of nutrients to soil to enhance plant growth and crop productivity. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas, that release carbon dioxide when burned. |
| genetically modified organisms (GMOs) | Organisms whose genetic material has been altered to enhance desired traits, such as crop yield or pest resistance. |
| Green Revolution | A shift to new agricultural strategies and practices designed to increase food production, beginning in the mid-20th century. |
| irrigation | The artificial application of water to land to support agricultural production. |
| mechanization | The use of machines and mechanical equipment in farming to increase efficiency and profits. |
| pesticides | Chemical substances used to kill or control pests, which can pose risks to wildlife, water supplies, and human health. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| fertilizers | Substances added to soil to increase nutrient content for plant growth, which can cause water pollution and eutrophication when they run off into waterways. |
| slash-and-burn farming | An agricultural practice where vegetation is cut down and burned to clear land for cultivation, causing deforestation and air pollution. |
| tilling | The practice of turning over and breaking up soil, which can cause soil erosion and damage soil structure. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aquifer depletion | The severe reduction of groundwater in an aquifer due to overuse, such as for agricultural irrigation. |
| drip irrigation | An irrigation system using perforated hoses to release small amounts of water directly to plant roots; the most efficient method with only about 5% water loss but expensive to install. |
| evaporation | The process by which water transforms from liquid to vapor and is lost from soil and irrigation systems. |
| flood irrigation | An irrigation system that floods an agricultural field with water; loses about 20% of water to evaporation and runoff and can lead to waterlogging. |
| freshwater | Water with low salt content, used for human consumption, agriculture, and industry. |
| furrow irrigation | An irrigation system that involves cutting furrows between crop rows and filling them with water; inexpensive but loses about 1/3 of water to evaporation and runoff. |
| runoff | Water that flows over the soil surface and is lost from irrigation systems rather than being absorbed by plants. |
| salinization | The accumulation of salts in soil after groundwater evaporates, which can make soil toxic to plants over time. |
| spray irrigation | An irrigation system that pumps groundwater into spray nozzles across a field; more efficient than flood and furrow irrigation but more expensive and energy-intensive. |
| waterlogging | A condition where too much water sits in soil, raising the water table and inhibiting plants' ability to absorb oxygen through their roots. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| artificial selection | The process by which organisms with traits that help them survive a particular pressure (such as pesticide exposure) are more likely to reproduce, passing those traits to offspring. |
| crop yields | The amount of agricultural product harvested from a given area of land. |
| fungicides | Chemical substances used to kill or prevent fungal diseases on plants. |
| genetic diversity | The variation in genes within a population, which enables the population to respond to environmental stressors. |
| genetically modified organisms (GMOs) | Organisms whose genetic material has been altered to enhance desired traits, such as crop yield or pest resistance. |
| herbicides | Chemical substances used to kill or control unwanted plants (weeds). |
| insecticides | Chemical substances used to kill or control insects. |
| pest control | Methods and strategies used to manage, reduce, or eliminate pest populations that damage crops or other resources. |
| pesticides | Chemical substances used to kill or control pests, which can pose risks to wildlife, water supplies, and human health. |
| resistance | The ability of organisms to survive exposure to a pest control method, typically developed through repeated exposure and artificial selection. |
| rodenticides | Chemical substances used to kill rodents such as rats and mice. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) | Large-scale industrial facilities where animals are raised in confined conditions with high population density. |
| desertification | The degradation of low precipitation regions toward increasingly arid conditions until they become deserts, often caused by overgrazing or other land use practices. |
| free-range grazing | A method of meat production where animals are allowed to roam and feed on open pasture or rangeland. |
| organic waste | Decomposable animal waste produced from livestock operations that can contaminate water sources or serve as fertilizer. |
| overgrazing | The excessive grazing of livestock on pasture land, leading to vegetation depletion and soil degradation. |
| soil erosion | The wearing away and loss of topsoil, often caused by water or wind, particularly accelerated when vegetation is removed. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aquatic systems | Water-based ecosystems including oceans, rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water where fish and other organisms live. |
| biodiversity | The variety of all living organisms and species within an ecosystem, region, or the entire planet. |
| fish species scarcity | The condition where certain fish populations become extremely rare or depleted due to overfishing. |
| overfishing | The removal of fish from aquatic systems at rates faster than populations can reproduce, leading to depletion of fish stocks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| coal mining | The extraction of coal from the Earth, which can involve surface or subsurface methods. |
| ecological impacts | Effects on natural ecosystems and organisms resulting from human activities such as mining. |
| economic impacts | Effects on the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, including costs and benefits of mining operations. |
| erosion | The wearing away and removal of soil and rock by water, wind, or other natural processes, often accelerated by removal of vegetation. |
| groundwater contamination | The pollution of water found beneath the Earth's surface, often resulting from mining operations. |
| habitat destruction | The degradation or removal of natural environments where organisms live, often caused by human activities. |
| lower grade ores | Ores with lower concentrations of valuable minerals, requiring more processing to extract the desired material. |
| mining | The industrial process of extracting minerals, ores, and other valuable materials from the Earth. |
| mining wastes | Materials removed or left behind during mining operations, including soil, rocks, slag, and tailings. |
| natural resource extraction | The process of removing naturally occurring materials from the Earth for human use. |
| ore | Rock or mineral from which valuable metals or minerals can be extracted. |
| ores | Naturally occurring minerals or rocks from which metals and other valuable substances can be extracted. |
| overburden | The layer of soil and rock that must be removed to access ore deposits in surface mining operations. |
| slag | Waste material that remains after minerals have been removed from ore during the mining and processing process. |
| strip mining | A type of surface mining that removes vegetation and layers of earth in strips to expose ore underneath. |
| subsurface mining | Mining that occurs underground, used when ore deposits are deep below the surface and surface mining is not feasible. |
| surface mining | A mining method that removes large portions of soil and rock from the surface to access ore deposits underneath. |
| tailings | Fine waste material left after valuable minerals have been extracted from ore. |