| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| convergent plate boundaries | Plate boundaries where two tectonic plates move toward each other, resulting in compression and the formation of mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes. |
| divergent plate boundaries | Plate boundaries where two tectonic plates move away from each other, resulting in seafloor spreading, rift valleys, volcanoes, and earthquakes. |
| earthquakes | Sudden releases of energy in the Earth's crust that occur when stress overcomes a locked fault, commonly found at all types of plate boundaries. |
| faults | Fractures in the Earth's crust where rocks have shifted relative to each other, commonly associated with plate boundaries and earthquakes. |
| hot spots | Stationary areas of intense heat in the Earth's mantle that can produce volcanoes as tectonic plates move over them. |
| island arcs | Curved chains of volcanic islands formed at convergent plate boundaries where oceanic plates collide. |
| locked fault | A fault where stress has accumulated but the rocks are held in place, releasing energy suddenly when the stress overcomes the friction. |
| mountains | High elevation landforms that can block or redirect precipitation and affect local weather and climate patterns. |
| plate boundaries | The edges where tectonic plates meet, classified as convergent, divergent, or transform based on the direction of plate movement. |
| rift valleys | Deep valleys formed at divergent plate boundaries where the crust is pulled apart and subsides. |
| seafloor spreading | The process by which new oceanic crust is created at divergent plate boundaries as plates move apart. |
| stress | The force applied to rocks at plate boundaries that can accumulate and eventually cause earthquakes when it overcomes friction. |
| transform plate boundaries | Plate boundaries where two tectonic plates slide horizontally past each other, resulting in earthquakes. |
| volcanoes | Openings in the Earth's crust where magma, gases, and ash are expelled, commonly formed at convergent and divergent plate boundaries. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| parent material | The original rock or mineral material that is weathered to form soil. |
| soil erosion | The wearing away and loss of topsoil, often caused by water or wind, particularly accelerated when vegetation is removed. |
| soil filtration | The process by which soil filters and cleans water that moves through it. |
| soil horizons | Distinct layers within soil that differ in composition, color, and organic material content. |
| weathering | The process by which parent material is broken down into smaller particles through physical, chemical, or biological processes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biological properties of soil | Characteristics of soil related to living organisms and organic matter, such as microbial activity and decomposition. |
| chemical properties of soil | Characteristics of soil related to its chemical composition, such as pH, nutrient content, and ion exchange capacity. |
| clay | The smallest soil particles (less than 0.002 mm), which significantly affect soil water retention and plasticity. |
| particle size | The diameter or dimensions of individual soil particles, which affects soil properties like porosity and permeability. |
| permeability | The ability of soil to allow water and air to move through it, influenced by particle size and pore connectivity. |
| physical properties of soil | Characteristics of soil related to its structure and composition, such as texture, porosity, and water holding capacity. |
| porosity | The proportion of void spaces (pores) in soil relative to the total soil volume, affecting water and air movement. |
| sand | The largest soil particles (0.05-2 mm) that increase soil porosity and permeability. |
| silt | Medium-sized soil particles (0.002-0.05 mm) that contribute to soil structure and water retention. |
| soil fertility | The capacity of soil to provide essential nutrients and favorable conditions for plant growth and productivity. |
| soil horizon | A distinct layer of soil with specific physical and chemical properties that differ from layers above and below it. |
| soil texture triangle | A diagram used to classify and identify soil types based on the relative percentages of clay, silt, and sand particles. |
| soil types | Different categories of soil distinguished by their physical and chemical properties, such as clay, silt, and sand composition. |
| water holding capacity | The total amount of water that soil can retain and hold against gravitational forces. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| atmosphere | The layer of gases surrounding Earth that is composed of major gases in varying proportions and is organized into distinct layers based on temperature. |
| exosphere | The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere where gas molecules are sparse and gradually transition to outer space. |
| mesosphere | The layer of the atmosphere above the stratosphere where temperature decreases with altitude and meteors burn up. |
| stratosphere | The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere where temperature increases with altitude and the ozone layer is located. |
| temperature gradients | The changes in temperature with altitude that define and distinguish the different layers of the atmosphere. |
| thermosphere | The layer of the atmosphere above the mesosphere where temperature increases with altitude due to absorption of solar radiation. |
| troposphere | The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere where temperature generally decreases with altitude and where most weather occurs. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| atmospheric circulation | The large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere driven by differences in solar heating and the Coriolis effect. |
| Coriolis effect | The apparent deflection of moving objects (including air) due to Earth's rotation, which influences the direction of wind patterns. |
| density differences | Variations in air density caused by unequal heating, which drive the movement of air masses in the atmosphere. |
| global wind patterns | Large-scale, predictable wind systems that result from solar heating and the Coriolis effect. |
| solar radiation | Energy from the sun that reaches Earth's surface and atmosphere, with the most intense radiation occurring at the equator. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| soil | The layer of weathered rock and organic material on Earth's surface that supports plant growth and varies among biomes. |
| vegetation types | The different kinds of plants and plant communities present in a watershed, which influence water infiltration and runoff. |
| watershed | A geographic area of land where all water drains to a common outlet, characterized by specific physical and biological features. |
| watershed area | The total surface area of land contained within a watershed that contributes water to a common outlet. |
| watershed divides | The boundaries or ridgelines that separate one watershed from adjacent watersheds, determining the direction of water flow. |
| watershed slope | The gradient or steepness of the land within a watershed, which affects water flow rate and erosion patterns. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| angle of the sun's rays | The angle at which solar radiation strikes Earth's surface, which determines the intensity of the radiation received. |
| daylight hours | The length of time during which the sun is above the horizon at a particular location, which varies seasonally due to Earth's axial tilt. |
| Earth's axis of rotation | The imaginary line around which Earth rotates, whose tilt causes seasonal variations in solar radiation and daylight hours. |
| equator | The latitude line at 0 degrees that receives the highest solar radiation per unit area on Earth. |
| insolation | Incoming solar radiation received by Earth, which varies with season and latitude. |
| intensity of solar radiation | The amount of solar energy received per unit area, which varies based on latitude and the angle of the sun's rays. |
| latitude | The angular distance north or south of the equator, which affects the intensity of solar radiation received at a location. |
| poles | The northernmost and southernmost points on Earth where solar radiation intensity is lowest. |
| season | A period of the year characterized by particular weather patterns and varying amounts of solar radiation received at a location. |
| solar radiation | Energy from the sun that reaches Earth's surface and atmosphere, with the most intense radiation occurring at the equator. |
| tilt of Earth's axis | The 23.5-degree angle of Earth's rotational axis relative to its orbital plane, which causes seasons and variations in daylight hours. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| climate | Long-term patterns of atmospheric conditions, including average temperature and precipitation, over decades or centuries at a specific location. |
| elevation | The height of a location above sea level, which affects temperature, precipitation, and climate patterns. |
| geographic factors | Physical features of Earth's surface, such as mountains and ocean temperature, that affect weather and climate patterns. |
| geography | The physical features and characteristics of Earth's surface, including landforms, water bodies, and their spatial distribution. |
| geologic factors | Physical characteristics of Earth's crust and interior, such as rock composition and volcanic activity, that influence weather and climate. |
| mountains | High elevation landforms that can block or redirect precipitation and affect local weather and climate patterns. |
| ocean temperature | The thermal conditions of ocean water that influence atmospheric temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns. |
| precipitation | Water falling from clouds to Earth's surface in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail. |
| rain shadow | A region of land that receives less precipitation because a higher elevation area blocks moisture-bearing winds from reaching it. |
| sun's energy | Solar radiation that drives weather and climate systems on Earth. |
| weather | Short-term atmospheric conditions including temperature, precipitation, wind, and humidity at a specific location. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| El Niño | A climate phenomenon characterized by warmer than normal ocean surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean that causes global changes to rainfall, wind, and ocean circulation patterns. |
| El Niño-Southern Oscillation | The coupled ocean-atmosphere system in the tropical Pacific that includes both El Niño and La Niña events and their effects on global climate patterns. |
| La Niña | A climate phenomenon characterized by cooler than normal ocean surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean that causes global changes to rainfall, wind, and ocean circulation patterns. |
| ocean circulation patterns | The movement and flow of ocean currents and water masses, which can be altered during El Niño and La Niña events. |
| ocean surface temperatures | The temperature of water at the ocean's surface, which changes during El Niño and La Niña events and influences global climate patterns. |
| rainfall patterns | The distribution and amount of precipitation across regions, which can be altered globally during El Niño and La Niña events. |
| wind patterns | The direction and strength of winds across regions, which can be changed globally during El Niño and La Niña events. |