Push Factors
The first reason people migrate are push factors, which are reasons why people leave somewhere. This is closely related to forced migration. People leave places for a number of reasons:
- War can cause people to leave as they fear for their lives and sometimes the lives of their families. The war in Syria has caused over 5 million people to flee the country according to the UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees).
- Oppression causes people to leave their country. Unfortunately, people are persecuted throughout the world. Some are persecuted for their religion (Christians in Sudan). Some are persecuted for speaking out against their government (journalists jailed in Myanmar). Others are persecuted for their ethnicity or race (black people in South Africa under apartheid).
- Natural disasters and/or environmental reasons can also cause people to move from their homes. The population of New Orleans dropped by over a quarter of a million people since Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
Pull Factors
The second reason people migrate are pull factors, which are reasons why people go to a particular place. This is closely related to voluntary migration. People move to places for a number of reasons.
- Economic reasons are by far the number one reason people move to a place. They are seeking better opportunities for themselves and their family. This is why people from the developing world move to countries in the developed world.
- People may move because a country has a better political climate, or is in a better environmental situation. However, that is rare compared to better job opportunities. In the United States, there are some sanctuary cities, which provide special protection for immigrants who are undocumented coming into the country.
Intervening Obstacles
People migrating can face obstacles and intervening opportunities along the way.
Environmental obstacles are physical features like deserts, oceans, and mountains, or logistical problems like traveling long distances.
Political obstacles could be proper documentation (Visas or Passports), or getting past man-made obstacles like an exclusion wall.
Cultural obstacles can be a problem as well. At times, citizens of the country people are migrating to are afraid their unique culture will be lost. Immigrants sometimes get blamed for unemployment, high welfare rates, or crime.
Demographics could be a reason people are leaving an overpopulated country. It could also be a reason they cannot enter a country. Some places have quotas on how many people from certain countries are allowed to move in. Once that number is met more people cannot migrate there.
Economic reasons could also be a reason why people cannot migrate from a country or get into a country. Many developing countries have corrupt systems that make applying for visas or passports very expensive and still difficult to receive. At times, coming into a country can be expensive and deter people from being able to enter. Sometimes migrants that are traveling to a specific country find intervening opportunities and end up moving to a destination they did not intend to originally. Many Syrians set out to migrate to Germany but ended up in Serbia.
This is because they found a supportive government there and a warm welcome from the Serbians.
Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration
Ernst Georg Ravenstein was a German-British geographer and statistician in the 19th century. He studied migration patterns in England and Europe and published a series of articles in the 1880s and 1890s regarding the characteristics of human migration and the factors that influence it.
The laws are not universally excepted, and some of his ideas have been modified over time as the world continues to change. However, his work had a significant influence on the study of migration and helped our understanding of the dynamics (why and what) of population movement.
- The majority of migrants do not move far away from their homes.
- Every migration generates counter-migration or a return.
- Migrants who choose to move far go to cities with more opportunities for jobs.
- People from rural areas are more likely to migrate than people from urban areas.
- Young adults are more likely than families to migrate internationally.
- The majority of migrants are adults.
- Cities tend to grow by migration and not by natural increase rate.
- Men are more likely to travel long distances.
- Those men are more likely to travel by themselves and not with their families.
- Most people migrate for better economic activities.
There may be environmental and cultural factors that are important, but usually not more than economic activities
🎥 Watch: AP HUG - Causes of Migration
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cultural factors | Migration influences related to language, religion, ethnicity, social customs, or family networks. |
| demographic factors | Migration influences related to population characteristics such as age structure, family size, or population density. |
| economic factors | Migration influences related to employment, income, poverty, or economic development opportunities. |
| environmental factors | Migration influences related to natural disasters, climate, resource availability, or environmental degradation. |
| intervening obstacles | Barriers or challenges that impede migration between an origin and destination, such as distance, cost, or legal restrictions. |
| intervening opportunities | Alternative destinations or options that migrants may consider between their origin and initial intended destination. |
| political factors | Migration influences related to government policies, conflict, persecution, or political instability. |
| pull factors | Conditions or circumstances in a destination location that attract migrants, such as job opportunities, better living conditions, or political stability. |
| push factors | Conditions or circumstances in a person's origin location that encourage them to leave, such as poverty, conflict, or environmental degradation. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What are push and pull factors in migration?
Push factors are negative conditions that encourage people to leave a place (e.g., lack of jobs, famine, war, political persecution, environmental hazards). Pull factors are positive attractions that draw people to a new place (e.g., job opportunities, safety, better healthcare or education, family ties). AP Human Geography splits these into economic, environmental, cultural/demographic, and political causes and notes intervening obstacles (barriers like distance, cost, or border controls) and intervening opportunities (closer alternatives that satisfy migrants). Lee’s push–pull model helps you explain why people move by weighing push vs. pull plus intervening factors. On the exam, be ready to label examples (forced vs. voluntary), identify push/pull type, and connect to concepts like refugees, remittances, chain migration, or guest-worker flows. For a focused review, see the Topic 2.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Why do people migrate from one place to another?
People migrate because something pushes them away and/or something pulls them toward a new place—think Lee’s push-pull model (IMP-2.C). Push factors: conflict/forced migration, persecution (refugees, asylum seekers), political instability, environmental hazards (drought, flood), lack of jobs, or poor services. Pull factors: economic opportunities (jobs, guest-worker programs), better education/healthcare, political freedom, family ties (chain migration), or safer environments. Intervening obstacles (cost, borders, visas) and opportunities (stopping points with jobs) shape the route and whether migration is step, circular, or permanent. Consequences include remittances, brain drain, and urban rural-to-urban flows. This fits the AP CED focus on how environmental, economic, cultural, and political factors interact (IMP-2). For a quick review, see the Topic 2.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV). Practice problems are at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What's the difference between push factors and pull factors?
Push factors are reasons people are pushed out of a place (negative conditions), while pull factors are reasons people are drawn to a new place (positive attractions). Push examples: war, political persecution, severe famine, lack of jobs, environmental disasters. Pull examples: job opportunities, better healthcare or education, political freedom, family already living there. The CED treats migration causes as cultural, demographic, economic, environmental, or political (EK IMP-2.C.2)—so the same category can supply either a push or a pull. Lee’s push-pull model also notes intervening obstacles (e.g., distance, immigration laws) and intervening opportunities (e.g., a job found en route) that affect whether migration happens. This is tested in Unit 2 (Population & Migration); see the Topic 2.10 study guide for quick review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV). For extra practice, try the AP question bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do economic factors cause people to migrate?
Economic reasons are one of the biggest push and pull factors for migration. People are pulled to places with more jobs, higher wages, better services, or career opportunities (e.g., guest-worker programs, urban jobs), and pushed from places with unemployment, poverty, or declining industries. Economic migration can be rural-to-urban (searching for factory or service jobs), international (for higher pay), or circular/circular (seasonal work). It also creates outcomes like remittances (money sent home) and brain drain (skilled workers leaving poorer countries). Use Lee’s push–pull model to show how economic positives and negatives, plus intervening obstacles (cost, border controls) or opportunities (stopping points), shape decisions. On the AP exam, expect Unit 2 questions about push/pull factors and consequences like remittances or brain drain; practice both MCQs and FRQs. For a quick review, see the Topic 2.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV) and more unit resources (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2).
What are some examples of environmental push factors that make people leave their homes?
Environmental push factors are physical conditions that force people to leave. Common examples: sudden hazards like earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis; and slower-onset problems like drought, desertification, sea-level rise and coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion, groundwater depletion, soil erosion, deforestation, and severe pollution. These can cause forced migration, create refugees or internal displacements, and interact with economic and political factors (EK IMP-2.C.1–2). On the exam, expect questions linking these environmental pushes to push/pull models, intervening obstacles, or refugee patterns (Topic 2.10 / IMP-2.C). For a quick review, see the Topic 2 push-pull study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV). Want more practice applying these examples to FRQs and MCQs? Try hundreds of practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
I'm confused about intervening opportunities and obstacles - can someone explain this simply?
Intervening opportunities are nearer, more attractive places that make a migrant stop short of their original destination—for example, finding a good job in a city along the route so you settle there instead of continuing. Intervening obstacles are things that block or slow migration: money limits, bad terrain, visa rules, or family obligations. In Lee’s push–pull model, these sit between push/pull factors and influence whether and where people actually move. Both can be economic, cultural, environmental, demographic, or political (CED EK IMP-2.C.2). On the AP exam you might be asked to identify or explain an intervening obstacle/opportunity in a scenario—name the factor and explain how it changes migrant decisions. For a quick refresher, see the Topic 2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do political factors influence migration patterns?
Political factors are major push and pull forces. Conflict, persecution, or human-rights abuses push people out as refugees or asylum seekers (forced migration). Political instability and corruption also push people to seek safety or better governance elsewhere. On the pull side, stable democracies, legal protections, and guest-worker or asylum policies attract migrants. Government immigration laws, border controls, and visa systems act as intervening obstacles or opportunities—restrictive policies block migration; family-reunification or labor programs enable chain migration. Political brain drain happens when skilled workers leave poorly governed states for better opportunities. On the AP exam tie: this fits IMP-2.C (push/pull factors; refugees/asylum seekers; intervening obstacles). For a focused review, see the Topic 2.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV). Want practice Qs? Try Fiveable’s practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What are cultural reasons why people might migrate to a new country?
Cultural reasons often act as push or pull factors that encourage migration. Push examples: cultural persecution or discrimination (religious, ethnic, or linguistic minorities forced to leave), loss of cultural rights, or interethnic conflict. Pull examples: the desire to join co-ethnic communities abroad (chain migration), religious freedom, education in a language you prefer, marriage, or the appeal of a country with more tolerant social norms. Cultural ties from former colonies or shared language also pull migrants (intervening opportunities like existing diaspora communities make moves easier). These fit EK IMP-2.C.1–2: cultural push/pull factors and concepts like chain migration and refugees/asylum seekers. For AP prep, practice identifying whether a prompt describes cultural vs. political/economic causes and use Lee’s push-pull model in FRQs. Review Topic 2.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Compare economic push factors versus economic pull factors with specific examples
Economic push factors are negative conditions that drive people away from a place—usually lack of jobs, low wages, unemployment, or declining industries. Example: miners leaving Appalachian towns after mine closures (loss of factory/jobs). Economic pull factors are positive opportunities that attract migrants—better employment, higher wages, or guest-worker programs. Example: migrants from Mexico moving to the U.S. for higher-paying construction jobs or Gulf countries recruiting foreign labor. Push vs. pull often appear together: rural-to-urban migration is pushed by poor farm incomes and pulled by city factories and services. Related AP concepts: remittances (economic gains sent home), brain drain (skilled workers leave poorer countries), and guest-worker programs (formal economic pull). Exams often ask you to explain similarities/differences or give examples in MCQs and FRQs—practice these using the Topic 2.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV). For extra practice, try Fiveable’s practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do I write an essay about the causes of migration for my AP Human Geography exam?
Write a clear, focused short essay: start with a 1–2 sentence thesis that names migration as driven by push/pull factors and by environmental, economic, cultural, and political causes (CED IMP-2, EK IMP-2.C.1/2). Define push vs. pull and name examples: economic (job loss vs. employment), environmental (drought vs. fertile land), political (conflict/refugee vs. asylum), cultural (persecution vs. family/chain migration). Use Lee’s push–pull model and mention intervening obstacles/opportunities (step migration, remittances, guest-worker programs, brain drain). For each paragraph: give one cause, a concrete example, and explain how it encourages migration (cause → decision → movement). On the AP free-response, be concise and explicit: define terms, use examples, and explain processes to earn full points (each FRQ is 7 points; show reasoning). Review Topic 2.10 and examples on the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV) and practice with 1000+ questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What are demographic factors that cause migration and how are they different from other factors?
Demographic factors are population characteristics that push or pull migrants—things like age structure (lots of young adults), sex ratio, population density, fertility and mortality rates, or rapid natural increase. For example, a country with a high proportion of young workers and few local jobs (youth bulge) is a push factor; an aging country with labor shortages is a pull factor that attracts guest workers. These differ from economic (jobs, wages), political (war, persecution), cultural (family ties, religion), or environmental (drought, sea-level rise) causes because demographic factors describe who and how many people exist, not the external conditions they face. On the AP exam you should be ready to classify causes as push/pull and give demographic examples (e.g., brain drain, chain migration, rural-to-urban migration) and note intervening obstacles/opportunities. For a quick review, see the Topic 2.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Why do some people migrate even when there are obstacles in their way?
People still migrate despite obstacles because the push and pull forces (economic, environmental, cultural, political) often outweigh the barriers. Lee’s push–pull model shows migrants weigh negative factors at origin (war, famine, lack of jobs) against positive draws at destination (jobs, safety, family). Intervening obstacles—cost, distance, border controls—make the trip harder, but intervening opportunities (a job en route, relatives already there via chain migration) can reduce costs or risk. Forced migrants (refugees, asylum seekers) may accept huge risks because staying isn’t viable. Economic migrants may tolerate obstacles because remittances boost family income back home. Step migration and circular migration also let people move in stages, lowering immediate obstacles. For AP exam prep, this fits EK IMP-2.C.1–2 and could appear on multiple-choice or FRQs in Unit 2 (12–17% of MCQs). Review the Topic 2.10 study guide on Fiveable for examples and practice (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV) and do more practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What happens when push factors are stronger than pull factors in migration?
If push factors (like war, famine, political persecution, or severe economic hardship) are stronger than pull factors, more people leave a place than arrive—you get net outmigration. That can produce refugees or asylum seekers (forced migration) and increase chain migration as migrants follow relatives already gone. Strong push > pull often creates rapid population loss, brain drain (skilled workers leaving), and strained services in destination areas. Lee’s push–pull model also notes intervening obstacles (cost, border controls) and opportunities (jobs along the way) that shape whether people actually move. On the AP exam, this shows up in multiple-choice and FRQ responses about causes and consequences of migration (use terms like push/pull, refugee, chain migration, intervening obstacles). For a quick review, check the Topic 2.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Can environmental disasters be both push and pull factors or just push factors?
Short answer: mostly push factors, but sometimes they can create pull effects. Environmental disasters (hurricanes, floods, droughts) are classic environmental push factors—they force people to leave because of danger, loss of homes, or failed livelihoods (EK IMP-2.C.1–2). However, they can produce pull-like effects indirectly: for example, large reconstruction projects, emergency aid, or job opportunities in safer regions can attract migrants (an intervening opportunity). Also, long-term climate changes may make some areas comparatively more attractive (water-rich regions drawing climate migrants). Remember AP terms: these are environmental causes of migration and can interact with economic, political, and cultural factors; they can create forced migration, refugees, or step migration depending on barriers and opportunities. For more examples and exam-style practice, check the Topic 2.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV) and Unit 2 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2). Practice questions are at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do intervening opportunities affect someone's decision to migrate to a specific place?
Intervening opportunities are nearer, more attractive places that appear along a migrant’s route and often change their destination choice. In Lee’s push–pull model, an intervening opportunity is a local pull factor (job, housing, family) that’s easier or cheaper to reach than the original target, so migrants stop there—this is called step migration. Intervening opportunities reduce distance traveled, lower costs and risks, and can interrupt chain migration to farther places. They’re different from intervening obstacles (laws, mountains, cost) that block movement. On the AP exam, you might be asked to explain these terms or use them in a scenario (IMP-2.C). For more practice and clear examples tied to the CED, check the Topic 2.10 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-2/push-pull-factors-migration/study-guide/oAz4Zirnytjn3TshIvPV) and try related practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).