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AP Human Geography
Unit 4 Overview: Political Patterns and Processes
4.1 Introduction to Political Geography
4.2 Political Processes
4.3 Political Power and Territoriality
4.4 Defining Political Boundaries
4.5 The Function of Political Boundaries
4.6 Internal Boundaries
4.7 Forms of Governance
4.8 Defining Devolutionary Factors
4.9 Challenges to Sovereignty
4.10 Consequences of Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces

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4.8 Defining Devolutionary Factors

Verified for the 2025 AP Human Geography exam•Last Updated on June 18, 2024

What is Devolution?

Devolution is the transfer of power from a central government to a lower level of government, such as a regional or local government. Devolution is often used as a way to decentralize decision-making and to give more autonomy to lower levels of government.

Devolution can take many forms, and the specific powers and responsibilities that are transferred can vary depending on the context. In some cases, devolution may involve the transfer of decision-making authority over certain policy areas, such as education or health care, from the central government to regional or local governments. In other cases, devolution may involve the transfer of fiscal powers, such as the ability to raise and spend revenue, or the power to legislate on certain issues.

Devolution is often seen as a way to address regional or local differences and to give more control to the people who are most affected by certain policies. It can also help to reduce the burden on the central government and allow it to focus on issues of national importance. However, devolution can also be a source of tension, as it can lead to differences in the policies and practices of different regions or localities. Review devolution with Dustin Fowler

What Affects Devolution?

There are many factors that can influence the process of devolution and the specific form that it takes. Some of the key factors that can shape the devolutionary process include:

  1. Political context: The political context, including the balance of power between different levels of government and the broader political landscape, can have a significant impact on the devolutionary process. Factors such as the presence of strong regional or local political parties or movements, the level of support for devolution among the public, and the willingness of the central government to cede power can all shape the devolutionary process.
  2. Economic factors: Economic considerations, such as the distribution of wealth and resources across different regions or localities, can also influence the devolutionary process. For example, regions or localities that are wealthier or have a strong economic base may be more likely to advocate for devolution, as they may see it as a way to further their economic interests.
  3. Historical and cultural factors: The history and culture of a region or locality can also play a role in shaping the devolutionary process. Factors such as the presence of a distinct regional or local identity, the history of relations between different levels of government, and the extent to which regional or local traditions and practices are valued can all influence the devolutionary process.
  4. Legal and constitutional frameworks: The legal and constitutional frameworks in place can also shape the devolutionary process. For example, countries that have federal systems of government may have more established mechanisms for devolution, while countries with unitary systems may need to adopt new laws or constitutional amendments to enable devolution.
  5. International factors: International factors, such as the influence of international organizations or the presence of regional or international actors, can also shape the devolutionary process. For example, the European Union has played a role in encouraging devolution within its member states as a way to promote regional integration and cooperation.

Forces that Lead to Devolution

Physical geography can cause isolation due to natural features. The Kashmir area between India and Pakistan can feel isolated because it is separated by the Himalayan and Pir Panjal mountains. These areas have some local autonomy because the physical barriers make it difficult for a central government to rule. Other physical features that can lead to devolution include deserts and large bodies of water. 

Ethnic separatism occurs when minority groups fight for independence. In Spain, the Basques & Catalans are two such groups that have a unique culture/language and desire to be independent from Spain. The Spanish government has tried to placate these groups by giving them more freedoms and representation, but the will of the people to be independent from Spain is strong and these movements continue to protest for separation. The Netflix documentary Two Catalonias highlights this struggle.

Terrorism is organized violence, usually for a political goal. For example, Al Qaeda conducted attacks in the United States, eastern Africa, and the Arabian Peninsula to seek power and push their ideology. Sometimes, ethnic separatists use terrorism to reach their goal of independence. The Basques in Spain have organized in part through a terrorist organization, the ETA, that has used violence to escalate the isssue.

Economic devolutionary forces can occur when regions seek control of natural resources. In Brazil, Amazonian tribes want more ownership of the resources in their area. Social issues due to different languages, cultures, or religions can lead to devolution. Belgium is distinctly divided into two distinct regions, the Flemish in the north and the Walloons in the south. This may eventually lead to Belgium splitting into two different countries. 

Irredentism, as previously mentioned, is annexation of other regions because of a shared culture or language. Armenians were concentrated in Azerbaijan when it was part of the Soviet Union; when it collapsed, Armenia wanted this region to be part of their country. It eventually did. 

🎥 Watch: AP HUG - Devolution

Fragmentation of States

Devolutionary forces can eventually lead to fragmentation of the state. 

Autonomous Regions

An autonomous region is a region that has a high degree of self-governance and is able to make decisions on matters of local concern without interference from the central government. Autonomous regions are often established as a way to give more control to regional or local authorities and to allow for the recognition of regional or local differences.

There are many different types of autonomous regions, and the specific powers and responsibilities that are granted to them can vary depending on the context. In some cases, autonomous regions may have the power to legislate on certain issues, such as education or health care, or to raise and spend revenue. In other cases, autonomous regions may have more limited powers and may be responsible for implementing the policies of the central government within their respective regions.

Autonomous regions are often established in federal systems of government, where power is divided between the central government and regional or local authorities. However, they can also exist within unitary states, where they are granted a degree of self-governance by the central government.

Here are a few examples of autonomous regions:

  1. Catalonia: Catalonia is an autonomous region in northeastern Spain with its own parliament, government, and language. Catalonia has a high degree of self-governance and is responsible for matters such as education, health care, and cultural affairs within its borders.
  2. Tibet: Tibet is an autonomous region in China with a high degree of self-governance and a unique cultural and religious identity. Tibet is responsible for matters such as education, public health, and environmental protection within its borders.
  3. Kurdistan: Kurdistan is an autonomous region in northern Iraq with its own parliament, government, and military. Kurdistan has a high degree of self-governance and is responsible for matters such as education, health care, and economic development within its borders.
  4. Quebec: Quebec is an autonomous region in eastern Canada with its own parliament, government, and language. Quebec has a high degree of self-governance and is responsible for matters such as education, health care, and cultural affairs within its borders.
  5. Northern Ireland: Northern Ireland is an autonomous region in the United Kingdom with its own devolved government and assembly. Northern Ireland has a high degree of self-governance and is responsible for matters such as education, health care, and economic development within its borders.

Sub-Nationalists

Sub-nationalists are individuals or groups who advocate for greater autonomy or self-determination for a particular region or locality within a country. Sub-nationalists may seek to establish or strengthen the powers of regional or local governments, or they may advocate for the creation of an autonomous region or even independence from the central government.

Sub-nationalism can be driven by a variety of factors, including cultural or linguistic differences, economic disparities, or a desire to protect regional or local traditions and practices. In some cases, sub-nationalism may be motivated by a sense of injustice or discrimination, or by a desire to have a greater say in the decisions that affect the region or locality.

Sub-nationalism can be a controversial issue, as it can lead to conflicts with the central government and may pose challenges to national unity. However, it can also be seen as a way to recognize and respect the diversity of a country and to give more control to the people who are most affected by certain policies.

Here are a few examples of sub-nationalist movements:

  1. Catalan independence movement: The Catalan independence movement is a political movement in Catalonia, an autonomous region in northeastern Spain, that seeks independence from Spain. The movement is driven by a desire to protect Catalan culture and language, and to give the people of Catalonia more control over their own affairs.
  2. Scottish independence movement: The Scottish independence movement is a political movement in Scotland that seeks independence from the United Kingdom. The movement is driven by a desire to protect Scottish culture and traditions, and to give the people of Scotland more control over their own affairs.
  3. Quebec independence movement: The Quebec independence movement is a political movement in Quebec, an autonomous region in eastern Canada, that seeks independence from Canada. The movement is driven by a desire to protect the French language and culture of Quebec, and to give the people of Quebec more control over their own affairs.
  4. Basque independence movement: The Basque independence movement is a political movement in the Basque region of Spain and France that seeks independence from Spain and France. The movement is driven by a desire to protect the Basque language and culture, and to give the people of the Basque region more control over their own affairs.
  5. Flemish independence movement: The Flemish independence movement is a political movement in Flanders, the Dutch-speaking region of Belgium, that seeks independence from Belgium. The movement is driven by a desire to protect Flemish culture and language, and to give the people of Flanders more control over their own affairs.

Balkanization

Balkanization refers to the process of dividing a region or country into smaller, often mutually hostile, units. The term is often used to describe situations where ethnic, linguistic, or cultural differences within a country lead to the fragmentation of the state into smaller units. The term is named after the Balkans, a region in southeastern Europe that has a long history of political instability and conflict.

Balkanization can be caused by a variety of factors, including ethnic or cultural tensions, the presence of strong regional or local identities, and the influence of external actors. It can also be fueled by political or economic issues, such as corruption or economic inequality, which can lead to a lack of trust in the central government and a desire for greater autonomy or independence.

Balkanization can have a number of negative consequences, including political instability, economic disruption, and conflict. It can also lead to the fragmentation of the state and the weakening of national identity. However, it can also be seen as a way to recognize and respect the diversity of a country and to give more control to regional or local authorities.

Here are a few examples of Balkanization:

  1. Yugoslavia: The breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s is often cited as an example of Balkanization. Yugoslavia was a multi-ethnic state that was composed of six republics and two autonomous provinces. Ethnic tensions between the different groups within Yugoslavia, as well as the influence of external actors, contributed to the breakup of the state and the creation of several independent countries, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Slovenia.
  2. Sudan: The breakup of Sudan in 2011 is another example of Balkanization. Sudan was a multi-ethnic state that was composed of several regions with distinct cultural and linguistic identities. Ethnic tensions and a lack of trust in the central government contributed to the breakup of the state, and South Sudan became an independent country.
  3. Iraq: The ongoing conflict in Iraq, including the rise of the Islamic State, is often seen as a result of Balkanization. Iraq is a multi-ethnic state with a complex political landscape, and regional and ethnic tensions have contributed to the fragmentation of the state and the emergence of competing power centers.
  4. Syria: The ongoing conflict in Syria is also often seen as a result of Balkanization. Syria is a multi-ethnic state with a complex political landscape, and regional and ethnic tensions have contributed to the fragmentation of the state and the emergence of competing power centers.
  5. Ukraine: The ongoing conflict in Ukraine, including the annexation of Crimea by Russia, is often seen as a result of Balkanization. Ukraine is a multi-ethnic state with a complex political landscape, and regional and ethnic tensions have contributed to the emergence of competing power centers.

Yugoslavia was ruled by Tito for many decades after WWII as a member of the non-aligned movement. It was a communist state, but was not aligned with the Soviets. After Tito died in 1980, there were years of uncertainty and unrest. The Yugoslav region includes several ethnicities including Serb, Bosniak, Croat, Albanian, and Macedonian - to name a few. There were also stark divisions between the religions of Christianity and Islam. 

All of these tensions and the power vacuum left by Tito opened the door for violence. In 1987, Slobodan Milošević came to power and ruled over almost a decade of ethnic violence that left thousands dead. By 1997, the Yugoslav region officially broke into several new states including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Macedonia, Serbia, and Slovenia.

Key Terms to Review (41)

Al Qaeda: Al Qaeda is a militant Islamist organization founded by Osama bin Laden in the late 1980s, known for its involvement in numerous terrorist attacks worldwide, including the September 11 attacks in 2001. The group's ideology promotes jihad against perceived enemies of Islam and has played a significant role in the context of devolutionary factors as it seeks to destabilize governments and influence local power dynamics in various regions.
Armenians in Azerbaijan: Armenians in Azerbaijan refer to the ethnic Armenian population residing in Azerbaijan, particularly in the region of Nagorno-Karabakh. This group has faced significant ethnic tensions and conflict due to historical grievances, territorial disputes, and nationalist movements, which have led to a struggle for autonomy and recognition within Azerbaijan, connecting to broader themes of devolutionary factors.
Autonomous Regions: Autonomous regions are areas within a country that have a degree of self-governance and independence, allowing them to manage their own affairs while still being part of the larger state. This arrangement often arises from historical, ethnic, or cultural factors, enabling these regions to maintain their identity and make decisions on local matters such as education, healthcare, and regional laws.
Basque Independence Movement: The Basque Independence Movement is a political and social campaign that seeks to establish an independent Basque state, which encompasses the Basque Country regions in both Spain and France. This movement is driven by a strong sense of national identity, cultural preservation, and historical grievances, often relating to the perceived oppression and marginalization of the Basque people by the Spanish and French governments.
Balkanization: Balkanization refers to the process by which a region or state breaks down into smaller, often hostile units along ethnic, cultural, or religious lines. This fragmentation typically arises from historical tensions, competing national identities, and socio-political issues, leading to conflicts and instability within the affected areas.
Basques & Catalans: The Basques and Catalans are distinct ethnic groups in Spain with unique languages, cultures, and identities. Both groups have sought greater autonomy from the Spanish state, often leading to discussions about devolution and self-governance in the context of regional nationalism.
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Macedonia, Serbia, Slovenia: These countries are part of the former Yugoslavia, a federation that disintegrated in the early 1990s due to rising nationalism and ethnic tensions. This disintegration reflects significant devolutionary factors, as various ethnic groups sought independence and self-determination, leading to the creation of new nation-states in the Balkans.
Catalan independence movement: The Catalan independence movement is a political and social campaign advocating for the independence of Catalonia from Spain, driven by a strong sense of regional identity and a desire for greater autonomy. This movement highlights the complexities of political boundaries, the impact of devolutionary factors, and the ongoing challenges to state sovereignty as it seeks to redefine Catalonia's status within Europe.
Catalonia: Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain with its own distinct language, culture, and historical identity. The region has sought greater autonomy and independence from Spain, highlighting devolutionary factors and internal boundary dynamics within the country.
Communist state: A communist state is a political entity that is governed by a single party that claims to uphold the principles of communism, seeking to eliminate capitalism and establish a classless society. In these states, the government typically controls the economy and aims to redistribute wealth among the population, often resulting in limited political freedoms and centralized authority.
Devolution: Devolution is the transfer of authority and responsibility from a central government to regional or local governments, allowing them to exercise more autonomy over their affairs. This process often arises from demands for greater local control, cultural differences, or political movements, leading to a reshaping of power dynamics and territorial governance.
Economic devolutionary forces: Economic devolutionary forces are factors that drive regions or groups within a country to seek greater autonomy or independence based on economic disparities, interests, or grievances. These forces can manifest through demands for resource control, economic inequality, or the desire for local governance that better represents regional economic priorities. Understanding these dynamics helps to illuminate the challenges and conflicts that arise when economic motivations clash with national policies.
Economic Factors: Economic factors refer to the various financial and resource-related elements that influence decisions, behaviors, and conditions in society. These factors can shape everything from agricultural practices to migration patterns and can drive changes in political structures and gender roles, impacting how communities and regions evolve over time.
ETA: ETA stands for Euskadi Ta Askatasuna, a Basque nationalist and separatist organization founded in 1959 that aimed to promote Basque independence from Spain and France. The group became known for its use of violent tactics, including bombings and assassinations, to achieve its political goals, which were rooted in a desire for self-determination and cultural preservation of the Basque people.
Ethnic Separatism: Ethnic separatism is the advocacy for the separation of a particular ethnic group from a larger political entity, often driven by the desire for self-determination, autonomy, or independence. This movement can arise due to feelings of marginalization, discrimination, or cultural differences, leading groups to seek greater control over their governance and resources. Ethnic separatism often leads to tensions or conflicts within states, especially in multi-ethnic societies.
Flemish Independence Movement: The Flemish Independence Movement is a political and cultural movement advocating for the autonomy or complete independence of Flanders, the Dutch-speaking northern region of Belgium. This movement is rooted in historical, linguistic, and economic factors, as Flanders has a distinct identity and has experienced tensions with the French-speaking Walloon region, particularly regarding governance, language rights, and economic disparities.
Fragmentation of States: Fragmentation of states refers to the process where a single political entity, such as a nation or state, breaks into smaller, independent units or territories. This phenomenon can be driven by various factors, including ethnic divisions, economic disparities, and regional identities that challenge centralized authority, often leading to calls for autonomy or independence by specific groups within the state.
Historical and Cultural Factors: Historical and cultural factors refer to the influences stemming from a region's past events, traditions, and social practices that shape its current political and social landscape. These factors can impact national unity, regional identities, and the propensity for devolution, which is the transfer of authority from central to local governments. Understanding these influences is key to analyzing conflicts, movements for independence, and the fragmentation of states.
International Factors: International factors refer to the various influences that arise from global dynamics, including political, economic, social, and environmental elements that affect nations and regions. These factors can shape governmental policies, economic relations, and social structures and often play a significant role in processes like devolution, where regions seek greater autonomy or independence from a central authority due to external pressures or influences.
Iraq: Iraq is a country in Western Asia, bordered by Turkey, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Syria. It has been significantly affected by devolutionary factors such as ethnic diversity, regional autonomy, and historical grievances among its various groups, leading to internal conflicts and challenges to national unity.
Irredentism: Irredentism is a political and nationalist ideology that seeks to reclaim and reoccupy a territory that the movement's adherents believe rightfully belongs to their nation. This concept often arises in the context of historical grievances, territorial disputes, and ethnic identities, influencing political boundaries, devolutionary movements, and challenges to state sovereignty.
Kurdistan: Kurdistan is a geo-cultural region that encompasses parts of Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria, primarily inhabited by the Kurdish people. This area is significant for its ethnic identity and has been the center of various nationalist movements seeking autonomy or independence, which connects to discussions about devolutionary factors and challenges to state sovereignty.
Legal and Constitutional Frameworks: Legal and constitutional frameworks refer to the systems of laws, regulations, and governing principles that guide the functioning of a state or organization. These frameworks establish the structure of government, the rights of citizens, and the processes through which power is exercised and held accountable, making them essential in understanding issues like devolution.
Non-Aligned Movement: The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states that chose not to formally align with either the Western or Eastern blocs during the Cold War. This movement was established in 1961 to promote mutual interests and to support countries in their quest for independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity, highlighting a commitment to neutrality amidst global superpower conflicts.
Northern Ireland: Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom located on the island of Ireland, known for its complex political history marked by ethnic and religious conflict. This region exemplifies devolutionary factors, as it has experienced significant struggles over identity, governance, and autonomy, especially between its nationalist Catholic community seeking unification with the Republic of Ireland and its unionist Protestant community wishing to remain part of the UK.
Physical Geography: Physical Geography is the branch of geography that deals with the natural features and processes of the Earth, including landforms, climate, vegetation, and ecosystems. Understanding physical geography helps us analyze how these natural elements influence human activities, resource distribution, and the development of regions.
Political Context: Political context refers to the environment in which political actions, decisions, and events occur, shaped by factors such as governance, political power dynamics, historical events, and cultural influences. It plays a critical role in understanding the forces that drive devolution, as well as the centrifugal and centripetal forces within a state, affecting stability, unity, and the distribution of power among different regions or groups.
Quebec: Quebec is a province in Canada known for its distinct French-speaking culture, unique history, and significant push for greater autonomy and self-governance. The province's identity and cultural landscape are shaped by its colonial past, where French settlers established a strong presence, leading to ongoing debates about language rights, cultural preservation, and political sovereignty within Canada.
Quebec Independence Movement: The Quebec Independence Movement is a political and social movement that advocates for the province of Quebec to gain full sovereignty from Canada, primarily driven by its distinct cultural identity, language, and history. This movement seeks to establish Quebec as an independent nation-state, reflecting the desire for self-determination among many of its citizens and is closely tied to the broader concepts of devolution and regional autonomy.
Scottish Independence Movement: The Scottish Independence Movement is a political campaign advocating for Scotland to become an independent country, separate from the United Kingdom. This movement is fueled by a desire for greater self-governance and reflects the historical, cultural, and economic factors that have shaped Scotland's identity. The quest for independence has gained momentum in recent decades, particularly following the 2014 referendum, which highlighted deep divisions over national identity and governance.
Slobodan Milošević: Slobodan Milošević was a Serbian politician who served as the President of Serbia and later the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the turbulent period of the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s. He is often associated with nationalist policies that fueled ethnic tensions and conflicts, leading to significant devolutionary factors within the region as various ethnic groups sought autonomy or independence from Yugoslavia.
Social issues: Social issues are problems that affect individuals and communities, often involving conflicts of values, beliefs, and interests. These issues can manifest in various forms, such as inequality, discrimination, and access to resources, impacting social cohesion and the overall quality of life. Understanding social issues helps to reveal the underlying dynamics within populations and the relationships among different groups.
Soviet Union: The Soviet Union, officially known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a socialist state that existed from 1922 to 1991, encompassing much of Eastern Europe and northern Asia. It played a significant role in shaping global politics and economy during the 20th century, influencing various political processes, devolutionary trends, demographic changes, and measures of development.
Sub-Nationalists: Sub-nationalists are individuals or groups within a larger nation who advocate for greater autonomy or independence for their specific region, ethnicity, or culture. They often seek to promote their unique identity and interests, which can lead to political movements aimed at achieving self-governance or secession from the dominant national government.
Sudan: Sudan is a country located in North-East Africa, known for its rich cultural history and significant geographic diversity. It has faced numerous challenges, including ethnic tensions, civil wars, and economic instability, which have led to its ongoing struggle with governance and territorial integrity.
Syria: Syria is a country in the Middle East, bordered by Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Iraq, and Turkey. It has faced significant challenges related to devolution, including ethnic and sectarian divisions that have led to civil conflict and the fragmentation of authority within the state.
Terrorism: Terrorism is the use of violence or threats to intimidate or coerce, especially for political purposes. This form of violence is often aimed at civilians and seeks to create fear, disrupt societies, and force governments to respond in a certain way. It can be a devolutionary factor as it may lead to fragmentation within states, provoke a backlash against minority groups, and encourage separatist movements.
Tito: Tito, or Josip Broz Tito, was the leader of Yugoslavia from 1943 until his death in 1980. He is best known for his role in establishing a unique form of socialist governance that allowed for a degree of autonomy among the diverse ethnic groups within the country, impacting discussions around devolution and national identity.
Tibet: Tibet is a region located in Central Asia, known for its high plateau and distinct cultural identity, particularly in relation to Buddhism. It has been a focal point for devolutionary factors due to its historical claims for autonomy and the political tensions stemming from its relationship with China.
Ukraine: Ukraine is a country located in Eastern Europe, known for its rich history, diverse culture, and significant geopolitical importance. The nation has faced several devolutionary factors that have shaped its political landscape, particularly regarding regional autonomy and ethnic divisions. Understanding Ukraine involves examining its historical ties with Russia, the impact of the Soviet Union's collapse, and ongoing tensions that influence its territorial integrity and national identity.
Yugoslavia: Yugoslavia was a multi-ethnic state in Southeast Europe that existed from 1918 until its dissolution in the early 1990s, primarily composed of several South Slavic nations. Its complex political landscape was marked by ethnic diversity, which ultimately contributed to tensions and conflicts leading to its fragmentation into separate countries. The disintegration of Yugoslavia highlights key factors in political geography, especially regarding devolutionary processes and the significance of ethnic identities in state formation.
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4.9 Challenges to Sovereignty