| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolute direction | The precise compass direction (north, south, east, west) between two locations. |
| absolute distance | The exact measurable distance between two locations, typically expressed in units such as miles or kilometers. |
| clustering | A spatial pattern in which similar phenomena or features are concentrated in the same geographic area. |
| direction | The position of one location relative to another, typically described using cardinal directions (north, south, east, west) or intermediate directions. |
| dispersal | A spatial pattern in which phenomena or features are spread out or scattered across a geographic area. |
| elevation | The height of a location above sea level, often represented on maps through contour lines or color gradients. |
| map projections | Methods used to represent the three-dimensional surface of Earth on a two-dimensional map. |
| reference maps | Maps that display general geographic information such as political boundaries, physical features, and locations of places. |
| relative direction | The directional relationship between two locations described in relative terms such as 'near,' 'far,' 'left,' or 'right.' |
| relative distance | The perceived or functional distance between two locations based on factors such as time, cost, or accessibility rather than actual measurement. |
| spatial patterns | The geographic distribution and arrangement of phenomena across a landscape or urban area. |
| spatial relationships | The ways in which places, phenomena, and human activities are organized, connected, and distributed across geographic space. |
| thematic maps | Maps that focus on a specific theme or topic, such as population distribution, climate, or economic activity. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| field observations | Direct data collection conducted by researchers or individuals in the geographic location being studied. |
| geographic data collection | The process of gathering spatial and locational information about Earth's features and phenomena through various methods. |
| geographic information systems | A computer-based technology that captures, stores, analyzes, and displays geographic data and spatial information. |
| geographic information systems (GIS) | A computer-based technology that captures, stores, analyzes, and displays geographic data and spatial relationships. |
| geospatial technologies | Tools and systems used to capture, analyze, and visualize geographic information and spatial data. |
| landscape analysis | The systematic examination and interpretation of the physical and cultural features visible across a geographic area. |
| online mapping and visualization | Digital tools and platforms used to display, analyze, and share geographic data and spatial information over the internet. |
| photographic interpretation | The analysis and extraction of geographic information from photographs, including aerial and satellite imagery. |
| remote sensing | The collection of information about Earth's features and phenomena from a distance using satellites or aircraft without direct physical contact. |
| satellite navigation systems | Technology that uses satellites to determine precise geographic locations and coordinates on Earth's surface. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| census data | Statistical information collected about populations, including demographics and characteristics used for planning and policy decisions. |
| geographical effects | The spatial and environmental consequences or impacts that result from decisions and actions taken in specific places. |
| geospatial data | Information about locations and spatial relationships on Earth's surface, used to analyze geographic patterns and inform decision-making. |
| satellite imagery | Images of Earth's surface captured from satellites, used to observe land use, environmental changes, and geographic features. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolute location | The precise position of a place on Earth's surface, typically identified using coordinates such as latitude and longitude. |
| distance decay | The principle that the intensity of interaction between two places decreases as the distance between them increases. |
| flows | The movement of people, goods, ideas, and information across space from one location to another. |
| pattern | The spatial arrangement or distribution of phenomena, features, or human activities across Earth's surface. |
| place | A specific location on Earth that has meaning and identity, shaped by human experiences, culture, and characteristics. |
| relative location | The position of a place in relation to other places or geographic features, described using directional or descriptive terms. |
| space | The arrangement and organization of phenomena across Earth's surface, including the distances and relationships between places. |
| time-space compression | The reduction in the time it takes to travel between places or communicate across distances due to technological advances. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| environmental determinism | A theory that the physical environment directly determines human societies, cultures, and behaviors. |
| land use | The human modification and management of Earth's surface for purposes such as agriculture, urban development, conservation, or resource extraction. |
| natural resources | Materials and substances found in the natural environment that are useful or valuable to humans, such as water, minerals, forests, and fossil fuels. |
| possibilism | A theory that the natural environment sets constraints and possibilities for human societies, but human agency and culture determine how those possibilities are used. |
| spatial relationships | The ways in which places, phenomena, and human activities are organized, connected, and distributed across geographic space. |
| sustainability | The ability to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, particularly regarding natural resources and land use. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| global scale | The largest scale of geographic analysis encompassing worldwide patterns and processes. |
| local scale | The smallest scale of geographic analysis, examining phenomena at the community, city, or neighborhood level. |
| national scale | A scale of geographic analysis focused on patterns and processes within a country's borders. |
| pattern | The spatial arrangement or distribution of phenomena, features, or human activities across Earth's surface. |
| processes | Dynamic mechanisms and interactions that shape geographic phenomena and vary across different scales of analysis. |
| regional scale | A scale of geographic analysis that examines areas larger than a single country but smaller than the entire world, often defined by shared characteristics. |
| scales of analysis | Different levels of geographic study (local, regional, national, global) used to examine spatial patterns and processes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| formal regions | Regions defined by official political, administrative, or governmental boundaries with clearly defined limits. |
| functional regions | Regions organized around a focal point or node of activity, where the area is unified by economic, social, or political connections to a central location. |
| perceptual regions | Regions defined by people's shared perceptions, cultural beliefs, and subjective feelings about an area; also called vernacular regions. |
| regional analysis | A geographic method of studying areas by examining their unifying characteristics and patterns at local, national, and global scales. |
| regional boundaries | The borders or limits of regions that are often transitional, contested, and overlapping rather than fixed and absolute. |
| regions | Areas of Earth's surface defined by one or more unifying characteristics or patterns of activity that geographers use to organize and analyze geographic phenomena. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cultural factors | Migration influences related to language, religion, ethnicity, social customs, or family networks. |
| demographic factors | Migration influences related to population characteristics such as age structure, family size, or population density. |
| economic factors | Migration influences related to employment, income, poverty, or economic development opportunities. |
| environmental factors | Migration influences related to natural disasters, climate, resource availability, or environmental degradation. |
| intervening obstacles | Barriers or challenges that impede migration between an origin and destination, such as distance, cost, or legal restrictions. |
| intervening opportunities | Alternative destinations or options that migrants may consider between their origin and initial intended destination. |
| political factors | Migration influences related to government policies, conflict, persecution, or political instability. |
| pull factors | Conditions or circumstances in a destination location that attract migrants, such as job opportunities, better living conditions, or political stability. |
| push factors | Conditions or circumstances in a person's origin location that encourage them to leave, such as poverty, conflict, or environmental degradation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural density | A method of calculating population density by dividing the number of farmers by the amount of arable land. |
| arithmetic density | A method of calculating population density by dividing the total population by the total land area. |
| climate | Long-term atmospheric conditions of a region that affect human settlement patterns and population distribution. |
| human factors | Social, economic, political, and cultural elements such as culture, economics, history, and politics that influence where populations settle. |
| landforms | Natural physical features of Earth's surface, such as mountains, valleys, and plains, that influence population settlement. |
| methods of calculating population density | Different approaches to measuring population density (such as arithmetic density, physiological density, or agricultural density) that provide different insights into how populations relate to available land and resources. |
| physical factors | Natural environmental characteristics such as climate, landforms, and water bodies that influence where populations settle. |
| physiological density | A method of calculating population density by dividing the total population by the amount of arable land available for agriculture. |
| population density | A measure of the number of people per unit of area, calculated using different methods that reveal different information about population pressure on land. |
| population distribution | The spatial arrangement and concentration of human populations across geographic areas at various scales. |
| scales of analysis | Different levels of geographic study (local, regional, national, global) used to examine spatial patterns and processes. |
| water bodies | Natural or significant water features such as rivers, lakes, and oceans that affect human population distribution and settlement patterns. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| asylum seekers | People who have fled their country and applied for protection in another country based on claims of persecution or danger. |
| chain migration | The voluntary movement of people to a destination where relatives, friends, or community members have already established themselves. |
| forced migration | The involuntary movement of people from their home due to circumstances such as slavery, conflict, persecution, or natural disasters. |
| guest worker | A person who voluntarily migrates to another country to work temporarily, often with the intention of returning home. |
| internal migration | The voluntary movement of people from one location to another within the same country. |
| internally displaced persons | People forced to leave their homes but who remain within their own country's borders due to conflict, persecution, or disaster. |
| refugees | People who flee their country or region due to persecution, conflict, or violence and seek safety in another location. |
| rural-to-urban migration | The voluntary movement of people from countryside and agricultural areas to cities in search of economic opportunities and urban services. |
| slavery | The forced, involuntary servitude of people who are treated as property and compelled to work without freedom or compensation. |
| step migration | The voluntary movement of people in stages, typically from rural areas to intermediate cities before moving to larger urban centers. |
| transhumance | The seasonal movement of people and livestock between different geographic areas in search of pasture and resources. |
| transnational migration | The voluntary movement of people across international borders, often involving the maintenance of connections to multiple countries. |
| voluntary migration | The deliberate movement of people from one place to another by their own choice, typically seeking economic opportunity or improved living conditions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cultural effects | Impacts on languages, religions, traditions, values, and social practices resulting from migration. |
| economic effects | Impacts on production, trade, labor markets, wealth distribution, and resource use resulting from migration. |
| geographic effects | Changes or impacts on the physical and human characteristics of places and regions resulting from specific processes or events. |
| migration | The movement of people from one place to another, either within a country or across international borders. |
| political effects | Impacts on government systems, policies, power structures, and governance resulting from migration. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| carrying capacity | The maximum population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely given available resources and natural conditions. |
| population density | A measure of the number of people per unit of area, calculated using different methods that reveal different information about population pressure on land. |
| population distribution | The spatial arrangement and concentration of human populations across geographic areas at various scales. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| age structure | The distribution of a population by age groups, often represented in population pyramids to show the proportion of people in different age categories. |
| population composition | The characteristics of a population, including age structure, gender distribution, ethnicity, and other demographic features. |
| population decline | The decrease in the total number of individuals in a population over time. |
| population growth | The increase in the number of people in a given area, which drives demand for urban development and services. |
| population pyramids | A graphical representation of a population's age and sex structure, used to visualize population composition and predict demographic trends. |
| sex ratio | The proportion of males to females in a population, typically expressed as the number of males per 100 females. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| fertility | The rate at which a population produces offspring, measured as the number of births per woman or per 1,000 people in a population. |
| migration | The movement of people from one place to another, either within a country or across international borders. |
| mortality | The occurrence of death in a population; a demographic variable that can be influenced by access to healthcare and changing social conditions. |
| population decline | The decrease in the total number of individuals in a population over time. |
| population growth | The increase in the number of people in a given area, which drives demand for urban development and services. |
| population-doubling time | The number of years required for a population to double in size at its current growth rate. |
| rate of natural increase | The difference between the birth rate and death rate of a population, expressed as a percentage, indicating population growth without accounting for migration. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| death rate | The number of deaths per unit of population (typically per 1,000 people) in a given time period; a key factor determining population aging. |
| demographic transition model | A model that explains how population changes over time as societies develop, typically showing stages of high birth and death rates transitioning to low birth and death rates. |
| epidemiological transition | A model explaining how the primary causes of death in a population shift from infectious diseases to chronic diseases as societies develop. |
| population decline | The decrease in the total number of individuals in a population over time. |
| population growth | The increase in the number of people in a given area, which drives demand for urban development and services. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Malthusian theory | A theory of population growth proposing that population increases exponentially while food supply increases linearly, leading to resource scarcity and population checks. |
| population change | Variations in the size of a population resulting from factors such as birth rates, death rates, and migration. |
| population decline | The decrease in the total number of individuals in a population over time. |
| population growth | The increase in the number of people in a given area, which drives demand for urban development and services. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| antinatalist policies | Government policies designed to discourage population growth by decreasing birth rates. |
| immigration policies | Government regulations and laws that control the movement of people into a country and determine who can settle there. |
| population composition | The characteristics of a population, including age structure, gender distribution, ethnicity, and other demographic features. |
| population policies | Government strategies and programs designed to influence the size, growth rate, or composition of a population. |
| population size | The total number of people living in a given area or country at a specific time. |
| pronatalist policies | Government policies designed to encourage and promote population growth by increasing birth rates. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| contraception | Methods or devices used to prevent pregnancy; access to contraception is a factor that influences fertility rates. |
| demographic consequences | The effects on population characteristics and trends, such as changes in fertility, mortality, and migration patterns. |
| fertility rate | The average number of children born to a woman during her reproductive lifetime in a given population. |
| migration | The movement of people from one place to another, either within a country or across international borders. |
| mortality | The occurrence of death in a population; a demographic variable that can be influenced by access to healthcare and changing social conditions. |
| Ravenstein's laws of migration | A set of principles explaining patterns and causes of human migration, including the influence of economic and social factors on population movement. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aging population | A population with an increasing proportion of elderly individuals relative to younger age groups, resulting from declining birth rates and increasing life expectancy. |
| birth rate | The number of live births per unit of population (typically per 1,000 people) in a given time period; a key factor determining population aging. |
| death rate | The number of deaths per unit of population (typically per 1,000 people) in a given time period; a key factor determining population aging. |
| dependency ratio | The proportion of dependents (young and elderly) to working-age population; a measure of economic burden in aging societies. |
| life expectancy | The average number of years a person is expected to live from birth; influences the age structure of a population. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cultural relativism | An attitude that views and evaluates another culture based on that culture's own standards and values rather than one's own. |
| cultural trait | Specific characteristics, practices, or elements of culture that can be transmitted between individuals and groups. |
| culture | The shared practices, technologies, attitudes, and behaviors transmitted by a society. |
| ethnocentrism | An attitude that judges other cultures based on the standards and values of one's own culture, often viewing one's own culture as superior. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural practice | Methods, techniques, and systems used in farming and food production, including land use, crop selection, and production methods. |
| cultural beliefs | Systems of values, traditions, and worldviews held by a group that influence how they interact with and organize their environment. |
| cultural identities | The characteristics, values, and practices that define a group's sense of belonging and distinctiveness within society. |
| cultural landscape | The visible human imprint on the physical environment, including buildings, land use patterns, and cultural features that reflect the values and practices of a society. |
| ethnic neighborhoods | Geographic areas where people of the same ethnic background predominantly live, often characterized by shared cultural institutions and practices. |
| ethnicity | The shared cultural, linguistic, and ancestral characteristics that define a group's identity and distinguish it from other groups. |
| gender | Social roles and identities associated with being male, female, or non-binary that influence participation in society and the workforce. |
| indigenous communities | Groups of people who are native to a particular region and maintain distinct cultural practices, languages, and relationships with the land. |
| indigenous lands | Territories traditionally inhabited and managed by indigenous peoples, often holding spiritual and cultural significance to these communities. |
| industrial practices | Manufacturing and production methods that shape the built environment and cultural landscape. |
| land use | The human modification and management of Earth's surface for purposes such as agriculture, urban development, conservation, or resource extraction. |
| land-use patterns | The spatial distribution and organization of how land is used for different purposes such as residential, agricultural, commercial, or recreational activities. |
| landscape features | Physical and visible characteristics of the land, including natural and human-made elements that shape the appearance of a place. |
| linguistic characteristics | Language patterns and place names that reflect cultural identity and historical settlement in a landscape. |
| physical features | Natural or modified landforms and geographic characteristics that form part of a cultural landscape. |
| postmodern architecture | Contemporary building styles that reject traditional design principles and often blend multiple cultural or historical references. |
| religious characteristics | Spiritual beliefs and practices expressed through landscape features such as sacred sites, places of worship, and ritual spaces. |
| resource use | The extraction, management, and consumption of natural resources by human societies based on cultural and economic needs. |
| sequent occupancy | The successive occupation and use of a place by different cultural groups, leaving visible evidence of each period in the landscape. |
| traditional architecture | Building styles and construction methods that reflect the cultural heritage and environmental adaptation of a community. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| centrifugal forces | Cultural, political, or economic factors that divide and weaken cohesion within a region or nation. |
| centripetal forces | Cultural, political, or economic factors that unite and strengthen cohesion within a region or nation. |
| cultural landscape | The visible human imprint on the physical environment, including buildings, land use patterns, and cultural features that reflect the values and practices of a society. |
| ethnicity patterns | Geographic distributions and variations of ethnic groups across regions that contribute to cultural identity and placemaking. |
| gender patterns | Geographic variations in gender roles, identities, and social structures across different cultural regions. |
| language patterns | Geographic distributions and variations of languages across regions that contribute to cultural identity and place. |
| placemaking | The process by which cultural groups create meaning, identity, and attachment to specific geographic locations. |
| religion patterns | Geographic distributions and variations of religions across regions that shape cultural landscapes and sense of place. |
| sense of place | The emotional and cultural attachment people develop to specific geographic locations based on shared characteristics and experiences. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| contagious diffusion | A type of expansion diffusion in which ideas, behaviors, or cultural traits spread to adjacent areas through direct contact, like a contagion. |
| expansion diffusion | A type of diffusion in which cultural traits, ideas, or phenomena spread outward from a source region while remaining in the origin area. |
| hierarchical diffusion | A type of expansion diffusion in which ideas or cultural traits spread from larger cities or centers of influence to smaller cities and rural areas, following a hierarchy of places. |
| relocation diffusion | A type of diffusion in which people, ideas, or cultural traits move from one location to another, spreading to new areas through migration or movement. |
| stimulus diffusion | A type of expansion diffusion in which the underlying idea or concept spreads to new areas, but the specific form or implementation is modified to fit local conditions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| colonialism | The practice of establishing political and economic control over distant territories and their populations, typically involving settlement and resource extraction. |
| creolization | The process of cultural blending that occurs when different cultural groups interact, resulting in new forms of cultural expression that combine elements from multiple sources. |
| cultural pattern | Recurring characteristics, practices, and beliefs shared by groups of people that are shaped by historical processes and contemporary influences. |
| cultural trait | Specific characteristics, practices, or elements of culture that can be transmitted between individuals and groups. |
| imperialism | The policy or practice of extending a country's power and influence over other territories and peoples through military, political, or economic means. |
| lingua franca | A common language adopted by speakers of different native languages to communicate with one another. |
| trade | The exchange of goods and services between individuals, groups, or nations, which can facilitate cultural contact and exchange. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cultural convergence | The process by which different cultures become more similar due to increased interaction, communication, and exchange of ideas and practices. |
| cultural divergence | The process by which cultures become more distinct and different from one another, often as a response to globalization or assertion of local identity. |
| cultural pattern | Recurring characteristics, practices, and beliefs shared by groups of people that are shaped by historical processes and contemporary influences. |
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and integration of people, economies, and cultures across the world through trade, technology, and communication. |
| indigenous languages | Languages native to a particular region or people, often threatened by the spread of dominant languages like English through globalization. |
| time-space compression | The reduction in the time it takes to travel between places or communicate across distances due to technological advances. |
| urbanization | The process by which populations become increasingly concentrated in cities and urban areas, involving the growth and expansion of urban settlements. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| belief systems | The core doctrines, practices, and values that define a religion and influence how it spreads. |
| cultural hearths | Geographic locations where religions, languages, and other cultural elements originate before spreading to other regions. |
| diffusion | The spread of cultural traits, practices, beliefs, or innovations from one place or group to another over time and space. |
| ethnic religions | Religions that are closely tied to a specific ethnic group or culture and are generally concentrated near their place of origin, such as Hinduism and Judaism. |
| expansion diffusion | A type of diffusion in which cultural traits, ideas, or phenomena spread outward from a source region while remaining in the origin area. |
| places of origin | The geographic locations where religions first emerged before spreading to other areas. |
| relocation diffusion | A type of diffusion in which people, ideas, or cultural traits move from one location to another, spreading to new areas through migration or movement. |
| universalizing religions | Religions that actively seek to convert people and spread their beliefs to different regions and cultures, such as Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Sikhism. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| acculturation | The process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits of another culture while maintaining some aspects of their original culture. |
| assimilation | The process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits of a dominant culture, often resulting in the loss of their original cultural identity. |
| cultural landscape | The visible human imprint on the physical environment, including buildings, land use patterns, and cultural features that reflect the values and practices of a society. |
| diffusion | The spread of cultural traits, practices, beliefs, or innovations from one place or group to another over time and space. |
| multiculturalism | A condition in which multiple distinct cultures coexist within the same society, each maintaining their own cultural identity. |
| syncretism | The blending of cultural or religious traits from different sources to create new cultural forms. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| centrifugal forces | Cultural, political, or economic factors that divide and weaken cohesion within a region or nation. |
| centripetal forces | Cultural, political, or economic factors that unite and strengthen cohesion within a region or nation. |
| cultural cohesion | The degree to which shared values, traditions, and identity bind people together within a state. |
| ethnic nationalist movements | Political movements driven by ethnic groups seeking autonomy, independence, or greater political representation based on shared cultural identity. |
| ethnonationalism | A form of nationalism based on shared ethnicity or cultural identity that can promote state unity or, conversely, lead to conflict. |
| failed states | States that are unable to perform basic functions of government and maintain control over their territory. |
| stateless nation | Groups of people with a shared national identity who do not have their own independent state and are dispersed across multiple countries. |
| uneven development | Unequal distribution of economic growth and infrastructure across different regions within a state. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| autonomous region | Territories within a state that have some degree of self-governance and control over local affairs while remaining part of the larger political entity. |
| independent states | Sovereign political entities that exercise self-governance and are recognized as the primary units on the world political map. |
| multinational states | Political entities containing multiple distinct nations or ethnic groups within their borders. |
| multistate nations | A single nation or ethnic group whose population is divided across multiple independent states. |
| nation-states | Political entities in which the boundaries of the state align with the territory of a nation, creating a close match between political and cultural identity. |
| nations | Groups of people united by common cultural, ethnic, linguistic, or historical identity, which may or may not have their own independent state. |
| political entities | Distinct territorial units with defined boundaries and political organization, including states, nations, and autonomous regions. |
| semiautonomous regions | Territories with limited self-governance that retain significant control by the central state government. |
| stateless nation | Groups of people with a shared national identity who do not have their own independent state and are dispersed across multiple countries. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| colonialism | The practice of establishing political and economic control over distant territories and their populations, typically involving settlement and resource extraction. |
| devolution | The transfer of political power and authority from a central government to regional or local governments. |
| imperialism | The policy or practice of extending a country's power and influence over other territories and peoples through military, political, or economic means. |
| independence movements | Organized efforts by colonized or subjugated peoples to achieve political autonomy and self-governance. |
| nation-states | Political entities in which the boundaries of the state align with the territory of a nation, creating a close match between political and cultural identity. |
| political boundaries | Lines that divide territory and establish the limits of political jurisdiction and sovereignty between states or political entities. |
| self-determination | The right of a people to choose their own form of government and determine their political status without external control. |
| sovereignty | The authority of a state to govern itself and make independent decisions without external interference. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| choke points | Strategic geographic locations that control access to important resources, trade routes, or regions, giving political and economic power to those who control them. |
| neocolonialism | The practice of using economic, political, or cultural pressure to control or influence other countries, rather than direct military force or political control. |
| political power | The ability to exercise control over people, land, and resources in a geographic area. |
| shatterbelts | Regions of geopolitical tension and conflict where the control and influence of major powers compete, often resulting in political fragmentation. |
| territoriality | The connection of people, their culture, and their economic systems to a specific land or territory. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| antecedent boundaries | Political boundaries that are established before significant settlement and development of an area, often following physical features like rivers or mountains. |
| consequent boundaries | Political boundaries that are drawn to separate different cultural, ethnic, or religious groups after they have already settled in an area. |
| geometric boundaries | Political boundaries that follow straight lines or other geometric patterns, often determined by latitude, longitude, or mathematical calculations rather than physical or cultural features. |
| political boundaries | Lines that divide territory and establish the limits of political jurisdiction and sovereignty between states or political entities. |
| relic boundaries | Political boundaries that no longer function as international borders but remain visible in the cultural or physical landscape. |
| subsequent boundaries | Political boundaries that are established after the settlement and development of an area, often following cultural or ethnic divisions. |
| superimposed boundaries | Political boundaries that are imposed on an area by external powers, often ignoring existing cultural, ethnic, or physical features. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Berlin Conference | A 1884-1885 conference where European powers negotiated the division of Africa, establishing boundaries through policy rather than natural features. |
| contested boundaries | Boundaries that are disputed or challenged by one or more parties regarding their legitimacy or location. |
| defined boundaries | Boundaries that are clearly established through legal agreements or treaties between nations or regions. |
| delimited boundaries | Boundaries that are described and marked on maps or in written agreements to specify their exact location. |
| demarcated boundaries | Boundaries that are physically marked on the ground through visible markers, fences, or other physical features. |
| demilitarized zones | Areas established by agreement where military forces and weapons are prohibited to reduce conflict between nations or regions. |
| exclusive economic zones | Ocean areas extending up to 200 nautical miles from a nation's coast where that nation has rights to exploit and manage natural resources. |
| internal boundaries | Political borders that divide regions or territories within a country, such as state or provincial boundaries. |
| international agreements | Formal treaties or accords between nations that establish rules, boundaries, or cooperative arrangements. |
| international boundaries | Political borders that separate sovereign nations and establish the limits of national jurisdiction. |
| land boundaries | Political borders that separate territories on land and define the extent of national sovereignty over terrestrial areas. |
| maritime boundaries | Political borders that separate nations in ocean areas and define rights to coastal waters and ocean resources. |
| national identity | The sense of belonging and shared characteristics that unite people within a nation or region. |
| regional identity | The sense of belonging and shared characteristics that unite people within a specific geographic region. |
| sovereignty | The authority of a state to govern itself and make independent decisions without external interference. |
| territorial seas | Waters extending up to 12 nautical miles from a nation's coast where that nation has sovereignty and control. |
| United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea | An international agreement that establishes the rights and responsibilities of nations regarding the use of ocean waters and resources. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| gerrymandering | The manipulation of voting district boundaries to favor a particular political party or group. |
| internal boundaries | Political borders that divide regions or territories within a country, such as state or provincial boundaries. |
| international boundaries | Political borders that separate sovereign nations and establish the limits of national jurisdiction. |
| redistricting | The process of redrawing the boundaries of voting districts, typically conducted after census data is collected. |
| voting districts | Geographic areas designated for electoral purposes, used to determine representation in elections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| centralized governance | A top-down system of government where decision-making authority and power are concentrated at the national or central level. |
| dispersed power centers | Multiple locations of political authority and decision-making distributed across different regions or levels of government. |
| federal state | A form of government where power is divided between a central national government and smaller regional governments (states or provinces), each with their own authority. |
| spatial organization | The arrangement and distribution of political, economic, and social systems across geographic space. |
| unitary state | A form of government where all power is held by a single central government, with no independent regional governments. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| devolution | The transfer of political power and authority from a central government to regional or local governments. |
| ethnic cleansing | The forced removal or displacement of an ethnic group from a territory, often through violence or coercion. |
| ethnic separatism | The movement by an ethnic group to separate from a state and establish political independence or autonomy. |
| irredentism | A political movement seeking to reclaim or annex territory that is historically or ethnically associated with a group but currently controlled by another state. |
| physical geography | The study of Earth's natural systems, including landforms, climate, water bodies, and ecosystems that influence human activities. |
| terrorism | The use of violence and intimidation to create fear and instability, often employed to challenge state authority or advance political objectives. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| autonomous region | Territories within a state that have some degree of self-governance and control over local affairs while remaining part of the larger political entity. |
| communication technology | Technological systems and tools that enable the transmission of information across distances, facilitating global connectivity and coordination. |
| democratization | The process of transitioning toward or establishing democratic systems of government with increased political participation and representation. |
| devolution | The transfer of political power and authority from a central government to regional or local governments. |
| economies of scale | Cost advantages gained by producing goods in large quantities, reducing the per-unit cost of production. |
| environmental challenges | Global or regional problems related to the natural environment that require coordinated international responses. |
| military alliances | Formal agreements between states to provide mutual defense and security cooperation. |
| sovereignty | The authority of a state to govern itself and make independent decisions without external interference. |
| state disintegration | The process by which a state breaks apart or ceases to function as a unified political entity. |
| subnational political-territorial units | Geographic and political divisions within a state that have their own governance structures below the national level. |
| supranational organizations | International organizations composed of multiple member states that exercise authority above the national level and can limit state sovereignty. |
| supranationalism | The process of states voluntarily pooling sovereignty and transferring power to international organizations that operate above the national level. |
| trade agreements | Formal arrangements between states that establish rules for the exchange of goods and services, often reducing tariffs and barriers. |
| transnational challenges | Issues that cross state boundaries and require cooperation among multiple nations to address, such as climate change or pandemics. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural practice | Methods, techniques, and systems used in farming and food production, including land use, crop selection, and production methods. |
| extensive farming | Agricultural practices that use larger areas of land with lower inputs per unit area, often with lower population density. |
| intensive farming | Agricultural practices that maximize productivity per unit of land through high inputs of labor, capital, or technology. |
| market gardening | Small-scale intensive farming focused on producing high-value crops for sale in local or nearby markets. |
| Mediterranean climate | A climate characterized by warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters, typically found in regions around the Mediterranean Sea and similar latitudes. |
| mixed crop/livestock systems | Farming systems that integrate both crop cultivation and animal husbandry on the same land. |
| nomadic herding | A pastoral practice in which herders move livestock seasonally across landscapes in search of water and pasture. |
| physical geography | The study of Earth's natural systems, including landforms, climate, water bodies, and ecosystems that influence human activities. |
| plantation agriculture | Large-scale farming of a single cash crop, typically in tropical or subtropical regions, often for export markets. |
| ranching | Large-scale extensive livestock farming, typically on grasslands or semi-arid regions. |
| shifting cultivation | A farming system in which farmers clear land, cultivate it for a period, then move to new land allowing the original area to regenerate. |
| tropical climates | Climates found near the equator characterized by warm temperatures year-round and significant precipitation, supporting diverse vegetation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural practice | Methods, techniques, and systems used in farming and food production, including land use, crop selection, and production methods. |
| changing diets | Shifts in food consumption patterns among populations resulting from agricultural production and availability. |
| conservation efforts | Practices and policies aimed at protecting and preserving natural resources and ecosystems affected by agriculture. |
| deforestation | The clearing, removal, or destruction of forests, often to create space for agricultural land use. |
| desertification | The process by which productive land gradually becomes desert, often due to drought, overgrazing, or unsustainable agricultural practices. |
| draining wetlands | The removal of water from wetland areas to convert them into agricultural land, altering ecosystems and hydrology. |
| economic purpose | The commercial or financial objectives and outcomes of agricultural production and land use. |
| environmental consequences | The effects of agricultural activities on natural systems, including impacts on soil, water, air, and ecosystems. |
| irrigation | The artificial application of water to land to support agricultural production in areas with insufficient rainfall. |
| land cover change | The transformation of Earth's surface from one type of land use to another, such as conversion of forests to agricultural fields. |
| landscape alteration | Changes to the physical features and characteristics of land resulting from agricultural practices. |
| nomadic herding | A pastoral practice in which herders move livestock seasonally across landscapes in search of water and pasture. |
| pollution | The introduction of harmful substances or contaminants into the environment that damage ecosystems and human health. |
| role of women in agricultural production | The participation, responsibilities, and contributions of women in farming and food production systems. |
| shifting cultivation | A farming system in which farmers clear land, cultivate it for a period, then move to new land allowing the original area to regenerate. |
| societal consequences | The effects of agricultural practices on human societies, including changes to culture, economy, and social structures. |
| soil salinization | The accumulation of salt in soil, often caused by irrigation practices, which reduces soil fertility and crop productivity. |
| terraces | Stepped or leveled surfaces cut into hillsides to create flat areas for agriculture and reduce soil erosion on sloped terrain. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aquaculture | The farming and harvesting of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and seaweed in controlled water environments. |
| biodiversity | The variety of different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms within an ecosystem or agricultural system. |
| biotechnology | The use of living organisms or their products to modify or create plants and animals for agricultural purposes. |
| community-supported agriculture | A system in which consumers purchase shares of a farm's harvest, directly supporting local farmers and receiving fresh produce. |
| distribution systems | The networks and infrastructure that transport agricultural products from farms to markets and consumers. |
| economies of scale | Cost advantages gained by producing goods in large quantities, reducing the per-unit cost of production. |
| fair trade | A movement ensuring that producers in developing countries receive equitable prices and fair working conditions for their agricultural products. |
| food deserts | Geographic areas where residents have limited or no access to affordable, fresh, and nutritious food, often in low-income urban or rural communities. |
| food insecurity | The lack of reliable access to sufficient, nutritious food to meet dietary needs and maintain an active, healthy life. |
| food-processing facilities | Industrial plants where raw agricultural products are transformed into finished food products for distribution and sale. |
| genetically modified organisms | Organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques to introduce traits not found in nature. |
| local food movements | Community-based initiatives promoting the production, distribution, and consumption of food from local sources to address food access and sustainability. |
| organic farming | Agricultural practices that avoid synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, relying on natural methods to maintain soil health and control pests. |
| suburbanization | The process of population and economic activity spreading outward from central cities to surrounding suburban areas. |
| sustainability | The ability to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, particularly regarding natural resources and land use. |
| urban farming | The cultivation of crops and raising of livestock in urban and suburban areas to produce food locally. |
| value-added specialty crops | Agricultural products that have been processed or modified to increase their market value and appeal to consumers. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| female roles | The specific tasks, responsibilities, and positions that women hold in food production, distribution, and consumption systems. |
| food consumption | The patterns and practices of how people acquire, prepare, and eat food in different societies and regions. |
| food distribution | The systems and processes by which food is transported and delivered from producers to consumers. |
| food production | The cultivation and output of crops and livestock for human consumption. |
| geographic variations | Differences in characteristics, practices, or patterns that occur across different locations and regions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural practice | Methods, techniques, and systems used in farming and food production, including land use, crop selection, and production methods. |
| clustered settlement | A rural settlement pattern where buildings and homes are grouped closely together in a concentrated area. |
| dispersed settlement | A rural settlement pattern where buildings and homes are spread out over a wide area with significant distances between them. |
| linear settlement | A rural settlement pattern where buildings and homes are arranged in a line, often following a road, river, or other geographic feature. |
| long lot | A survey method that creates long, narrow parcels of land extending from a river or road, used in areas like French Canada and Louisiana. |
| metes and bounds | A survey method that describes land boundaries using distances (metes) and directions (bounds) from natural or artificial landmarks. |
| rural settlement patterns | The spatial arrangement and distribution of human settlements in agricultural and non-urban areas. |
| township and range | A survey method that divides land into a grid system of townships and ranges, commonly used in the United States. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural revolutions | Major periods of transformation in farming practices and food production that led to increased yields and the spread of crops and livestock globally. |
| Central America | A geographic region in Mesoamerica that was a major center of domestication for plants such as maize and animals. |
| Columbian Exchange | The global transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between the Americas and Europe, Africa, and Asia following Columbus's 1492 voyage. |
| diffusion | The spread of cultural traits, practices, beliefs, or innovations from one place or group to another over time and space. |
| domestication | The process of adapting wild plants and animals for human use through selective breeding and cultivation over many generations. |
| Fertile Crescent | An ancient region in Southwest Asia spanning parts of modern-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, and Egypt, where early domestication of plants and animals occurred. |
| hearths of domestication | Geographic centers or regions where plants and animals were first domesticated and agricultural practices originated. |
| Indus River Valley | An ancient civilization and region in South Asia (modern-day Pakistan and India) that was a major center of early plant and animal domestication. |
| Southeast Asia | A geographic region in Asia that served as a major center of domestication for plants and animals. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| food production | The cultivation and output of crops and livestock for human consumption. |
| life expectancy | The average number of years a person is expected to live from birth; influences the age structure of a population. |
| second agricultural revolution | A period of agricultural innovation and increased food production that led to improved diets, longer life expectancies, and a larger workforce available for industrial labor. |
| technology | Tools, techniques, and innovations applied to agricultural practices to increase efficiency and output. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural practice | Methods, techniques, and systems used in farming and food production, including land use, crop selection, and production methods. |
| bid-rent theory | An economic theory explaining how land use is distributed within cities based on the ability of different land uses to pay rent at various distances from the central business district. |
| commercial agriculture | Farming oriented toward producing crops and livestock for sale in markets, often at regional, national, or global scales. |
| economic forces | Market-driven factors such as prices, costs, and profit incentives that shape decisions about how and what to produce. |
| extensive farming | Agricultural practices that use larger areas of land with lower inputs per unit area, often with lower population density. |
| intensive farming | Agricultural practices that maximize productivity per unit of land through high inputs of labor, capital, or technology. |
| land costs | The economic value and expense associated with acquiring or using land for agricultural production. |
| monoculture | The cultivation of a single crop species over a large area, often associated with commercial agriculture. |
| subsistence agriculture | Farming primarily for self-consumption and local use, producing enough to meet the farmer's own needs rather than for commercial sale. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural practice | Methods, techniques, and systems used in farming and food production, including land use, crop selection, and production methods. |
| carrying capacity | The maximum population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely given available resources and natural conditions. |
| commercial agricultural operations | Large-scale farming enterprises focused on producing crops or livestock for profit and market sale rather than subsistence. |
| commodity chains | The interconnected sequence of production, processing, distribution, and consumption stages that link agricultural products from farm to consumer. |
| economic forces | Market-driven factors such as prices, costs, and profit incentives that shape decisions about how and what to produce. |
| economies of scale | Cost advantages gained by producing goods in large quantities, reducing the per-unit cost of production. |
| family farms | Small-scale agricultural operations typically owned and operated by a family, often producing for local consumption or regional markets. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural production | The cultivation and harvesting of crops and livestock for food and other products. |
| concentric rings | Circular zones of different agricultural land use patterns arranged around a central market in the von Thünen model. |
| distance from market | The spatial separation between agricultural production areas and the central market or urban center, which affects land use decisions. |
| rural land use | The patterns of how land in countryside and non-urban areas is utilized, including farming, forestry, and other agricultural activities. |
| specialty farming | Agricultural production focused on specific high-value crops or products rather than general subsistence or commodity farming. |
| transportation costs | The expenses associated with moving goods from their production location to the market, which increase with distance. |
| von Thünen model | A geographic model that explains rural land use patterns by analyzing how transportation costs and distance from the market influence the location and type of agricultural production. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural consumption | The use and demand for food and agricultural products by populations and markets. |
| agricultural production | The cultivation and harvesting of crops and livestock for food and other products. |
| export commodities | Agricultural or raw material products produced in one country and sold to other countries for profit. |
| food distribution networks | The systems and pathways through which food products are transported and delivered from producers to consumers across regions and countries. |
| global supply chain | The interconnected network of producers, processors, distributors, and consumers involved in moving agricultural products from production to consumption worldwide. |
| infrastructure | The basic physical systems and facilities needed for a city to function, including transportation networks, utilities, and public services. |
| interdependence | The mutual reliance of countries on each other for goods, services, and economic stability in the global economy. |
| political relationships | The diplomatic connections and agreements between countries that can affect trade, access to resources, and economic cooperation. |
| world trade | The exchange of goods and services between countries across international markets and borders. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| communication | Systems and technologies for exchanging information, which influence patterns of urbanization and economic development. |
| economic development | The process of improving the economic well-being, productivity, and standard of living in a region or country. |
| government policies | Official decisions and regulations established by government that shape urbanization patterns and urban growth. |
| migration | The movement of people from one place to another, either within a country or across international borders. |
| population growth | The increase in the number of people in a given area, which drives demand for urban development and services. |
| site | The specific physical location and local characteristics of a place, including its physical features, resources, and natural attributes. |
| situation | The relative location of a place in relation to other places, including its accessibility, connections to transportation networks, and proximity to other cities or resources. |
| suburbanization | The process of population and economic activity spreading outward from central cities to surrounding suburban areas. |
| transportation | The movement of goods and materials, including shipping containers and infrastructure, that affects manufacturing location decisions. |
| urbanization | The process by which populations become increasingly concentrated in cities and urban areas, involving the growth and expansion of urban settlements. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| blockbusting | A discriminatory real estate practice where agents encourage white property owners to sell by warning of neighborhood racial change, then sell properties to Black buyers at inflated prices. |
| disamenity zones | Urban areas characterized by undesirable conditions such as pollution, crime, or deteriorated infrastructure that discourage residence and investment. |
| environmental injustice | The disproportionate exposure of low-income and minority communities to environmental hazards, pollution, and lack of environmental benefits. |
| functional fragmentation | The division of government responsibilities and services across multiple agencies and institutions at different administrative levels. |
| gentrification | The process of neighborhood change where wealthier residents move into lower-income areas, leading to rising property values and displacement of original residents. |
| geographic fragmentation | The spatial separation and dispersal of government agencies and institutions across state, county, city, and neighborhood levels. |
| housing discrimination | Unfair treatment in housing access, pricing, or services based on protected characteristics such as race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. |
| inclusionary zoning | A zoning policy requiring or encouraging developers to include affordable housing units in new residential developments. |
| land tenure | The legal rights and arrangements governing ownership, use, and control of land. |
| local food movements | Community-based initiatives promoting the production, distribution, and consumption of food from local sources to address food access and sustainability. |
| redlining | A discriminatory practice where lenders or insurers deny services to residents of certain neighborhoods based on racial or ethnic composition, typically marked by red lines on maps. |
| squatter settlements | Informal residential areas where people occupy land or buildings without legal ownership or permission, often lacking basic services and infrastructure. |
| urban renewal | Government-sponsored programs to redevelop deteriorated urban areas through demolition, reconstruction, and revitalization of neighborhoods. |
| zones of abandonment | Urban areas where properties are abandoned due to disinvestment, declining property values, and lack of economic opportunity. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| brownfields | Previously developed or industrial land that is abandoned or underutilized and may be contaminated, targeted for remediation and redevelopment. |
| ecological footprint | The amount of land and water resources required to support the consumption patterns and waste production of a city or population. |
| farmland protection policies | Government measures designed to preserve agricultural land from urban development and conversion to other uses. |
| regional planning | Coordinated land use and development strategies across multiple municipalities to address urban challenges at a broader scale. |
| sanitation | Systems and practices for managing waste disposal and maintaining clean water and living conditions in urban areas. |
| sprawl | The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural or undeveloped land, characterized by low-density development. |
| urban growth boundaries | Regulatory limits placed around cities to restrict sprawl and direct development toward existing urban areas. |
| urban sustainability | The ability of cities to meet present needs for resources and livability while preserving the environment for future generations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| boomburbs | Rapidly growing suburban cities that have experienced explosive population growth and development. |
| decentralization | The process of dispersing population, economic activity, and services away from central urban cores toward outlying areas. |
| edge cities | Urban centers that develop on the periphery of major metropolitan areas, often characterized by office parks, shopping centers, and residential development. |
| exurbs | Prosperous communities located beyond the suburbs, characterized by low-density residential development and rural character. |
| megacities | Extremely large metropolitan areas, typically defined as cities with populations exceeding 10 million people. |
| metacities | Vast urban regions consisting of multiple interconnected megacities and metropolitan areas functioning as a single integrated system. |
| periphery | Less developed countries and regions on the outer edges of the global economic system with lower levels of industrialization and wealth. |
| semiperiphery | Countries and regions with intermediate levels of development, positioned between the core and periphery in the global economic system. |
| sprawl | The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural or undeveloped land, characterized by low-density development. |
| suburbanization | The process of population and economic activity spreading outward from central cities to surrounding suburban areas. |
| urbanization | The process by which populations become increasingly concentrated in cities and urban areas, involving the growth and expansion of urban settlements. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| global linkages | Connections between cities and places that enable the exchange of resources, ideas, and influence on a worldwide scale. |
| global networks | Systems of interconnected cities and regions that facilitate the flow of goods, capital, information, and people across international boundaries. |
| global processes | Large-scale phenomena such as trade, migration, cultural diffusion, and economic integration that operate across multiple countries and regions. |
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and integration of people, economies, and cultures across the world through trade, technology, and communication. |
| urban hierarchy | A classification system that ranks cities based on their size, importance, and functions within a region or country. |
| world cities | Major cities that function at the top of the global urban hierarchy and serve as centers for international business, finance, and cultural exchange. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Christaller's central place theory | A geographic theory explaining how cities of different sizes are distributed and organized in a hierarchical system based on the goods and services they provide. |
| gravity model | A principle explaining the interaction between cities based on their size and the distance between them, where larger cities and closer distances increase interaction. |
| interdependence | The mutual reliance of countries on each other for goods, services, and economic stability in the global economy. |
| primate city | A city that is disproportionately larger than other cities in a country or region, often dominating the urban system. |
| rank-size rule | A principle stating that the population of a city is inversely proportional to its rank in the urban hierarchy, where the second-largest city is approximately half the size of the largest city. |
| relative size | The comparative magnitude of cities in relation to one another within an urban system. |
| spacing | The geographic distance and distribution patterns between cities in a region. |
| urban hierarchy | A classification system that ranks cities based on their size, importance, and functions within a region or country. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bid-rent theory | An economic theory explaining how land use is distributed within cities based on the ability of different land uses to pay rent at various distances from the central business district. |
| Burgess concentric-zone model | An urban model that describes city structure as a series of concentric rings or zones, each with distinct land uses and characteristics radiating outward from the central business district. |
| galactic city model | An urban model describing modern cities as dispersed, polycentric metropolitan areas with multiple centers of economic activity spread across a wide geographic area. |
| Harris and Ullman multiple-nuclei model | An urban model proposing that cities develop around multiple centers or nuclei rather than a single central business district, with different land uses concentrated in different nodes. |
| Hoyt sector model | An urban model that explains city structure as pie-shaped sectors radiating from the central business district, with similar land uses and socioeconomic characteristics clustered in each sector. |
| internal structure of cities | The spatial organization and arrangement of different land uses, zones, and functional areas within urban areas. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cycles of development | Recurring patterns of urban growth, decline, and renewal that shape how cities evolve and change over time. |
| high-density housing | Residential development characterized by many housing units per unit area, typically featuring multi-story apartment buildings or condominiums. |
| infilling | The development of vacant or underutilized land within existing urban areas, typically involving construction of new buildings on previously developed sites. |
| low-density housing | Residential development characterized by fewer housing units per unit area, typically featuring single-family homes with larger lots and more open space. |
| medium-density housing | Residential development with a moderate number of housing units per unit area, often including townhouses, duplexes, or small apartment buildings. |
| residential land use | The allocation and use of land primarily for housing and residential purposes within urban and suburban areas. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| economic development | The process of improving the economic well-being, productivity, and standard of living in a region or country. |
| infrastructure | The basic physical systems and facilities needed for a city to function, including transportation networks, utilities, and public services. |
| social development | The process of improving social conditions, institutions, and quality of life within a community or society. |
| spatial patterns | The geographic distribution and arrangement of phenomena across a landscape or urban area. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| de facto segregation | Residential or social separation based on economic factors, housing costs, or market forces rather than explicit legal requirements. |
| greenbelts | Protected areas of undeveloped land surrounding urban areas designed to prevent sprawl and preserve green space. |
| livability | The overall quality of life in an urban area, including factors such as safety, access to services, environmental quality, and community engagement. |
| mixed land use | Urban design practice that combines residential, commercial, and recreational spaces in the same area to reduce travel distances and promote walkability. |
| New Urbanism | An urban design movement that emphasizes walkable neighborhoods, mixed-use development, and reduced automobile dependency. |
| place character | The distinctive physical, cultural, and historical qualities that give a location its unique identity and sense of community. |
| slow-growth cities | Urban areas that implement policies to limit rapid development and population growth to maintain quality of life and environmental sustainability. |
| smart-growth policies | Urban planning strategies that promote compact, efficient development while preserving open space and protecting the environment. |
| sprawl | The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural or undeveloped land, characterized by low-density development. |
| sustainable design initiatives | Urban planning and architectural approaches designed to minimize environmental impact and promote long-term livability. |
| sustainable options | Urban practices and infrastructure designed to meet present needs while minimizing negative environmental and social impacts for future generations. |
| transportation-oriented development | Urban design strategy that concentrates residential and commercial development near public transportation hubs to reduce car dependency. |
| urban design initiatives | Planned interventions and projects designed to improve the physical layout, functionality, and sustainability of urban areas. |
| walkability | The degree to which an urban area is designed to be pedestrian-friendly, allowing people to accomplish errands on foot and access amenities within walking distance. |
| zoning practices | Regulations that designate how land in different areas can be used, such as residential, commercial, or industrial purposes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| census data | Statistical information collected about populations, including demographics and characteristics used for planning and policy decisions. |
| field studies | Direct observational research conducted in urban areas to gather qualitative information about how people experience and perceive urban change. |
| geographic change | Transformations in the physical, social, economic, or cultural characteristics of urban areas over time. |
| population composition | The characteristics of a population, including age structure, gender distribution, ethnicity, and other demographic features. |
| qualitative data | Non-numerical information collected through methods like field studies and narratives that describe individual attitudes and experiences related to urban change. |
| quantitative data | Numerical information collected through census and survey data that measures changes in population composition and size in urban areas. |
| survey data | Information gathered by asking questions to a sample of people, used to understand changes in urban population composition and size. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| class structures | The hierarchical organization of society into distinct social and economic groups based on wealth, occupation, and status. |
| colonialism | The practice of establishing political and economic control over distant territories and their populations, typically involving settlement and resource extraction. |
| diffusion | The spread of cultural traits, practices, beliefs, or innovations from one place or group to another over time and space. |
| imperialism | The policy or practice of extending a country's power and influence over other territories and peoples through military, political, or economic means. |
| industrialization | The development of industries in a country or region on a large scale, involving the transformation of economies from agricultural to manufacturing-based. |
| natural resources | Materials and substances found in the natural environment that are useful or valuable to humans, such as water, minerals, forests, and fossil fuels. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources used as inputs in manufacturing and industrial production. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| break-of-bulk point | A location where goods are transferred from one mode of transportation to another, affecting manufacturing and distribution site selection. |
| core | Economically developed regions with advanced infrastructure, technology, and capital that attract manufacturing and industrial production. |
| economic sectors | Divisions of the economy based on the type of economic activity, including primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, and quinary sectors. |
| industrial production | The manufacturing and processing of goods using machinery and labor, typically organized in factories or industrial facilities. |
| labor | The human workforce and employment that influences the location decisions for manufacturing and industrial production. |
| least cost theory | An economic principle stating that manufacturing locations are chosen based on minimizing production and transportation costs. |
| markets | Areas of consumer demand and economic activity that influence where manufacturing facilities are located. |
| periphery | Less developed countries and regions on the outer edges of the global economic system with lower levels of industrialization and wealth. |
| primary sector | The economic sector focused on extracting and harvesting natural resources, such as agriculture, mining, and fishing. |
| quaternary sector | The economic sector focused on information, knowledge, and intellectual services, including research, finance, and administration. |
| quinary sector | The economic sector focused on high-level decision-making and strategic planning, including government and executive services. |
| resources | Raw materials and natural inputs required for manufacturing that influence industrial location decisions. |
| secondary sector | The economic sector focused on manufacturing and processing raw materials into finished goods. |
| semiperiphery | Countries and regions with intermediate levels of development, positioned between the core and periphery in the global economic system. |
| shipping containers | Standardized containers used for transporting goods via ships, trucks, and trains, influencing manufacturing location efficiency. |
| spatial patterns | The geographic distribution and arrangement of phenomena across a landscape or urban area. |
| tertiary sector | The economic sector focused on providing services to consumers and businesses, such as retail, healthcare, and education. |
| transportation | The movement of goods and materials, including shipping containers and infrastructure, that affects manufacturing location decisions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| access to health care | The availability and ability of individuals to obtain medical services and treatment. |
| empowerment | The process of increasing the capacity and authority of individuals or groups to make decisions and control resources. |
| fertility rate | The average number of children born to a woman during her reproductive lifetime in a given population. |
| formal economy | Economic activities that are officially recognized, regulated, and taxed by the government. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal, oil, and natural gas. |
| Gender Inequality Index (GII) | A composite measure that reflects gender-based inequalities in reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market participation. |
| Gross Domestic Product (GDP) | The total monetary value of all finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period. |
| Gross National Income (GNI) | The total income earned by a country's residents from all sources, including domestic production and income from abroad. |
| Gross National Product (GNP) | The total monetary value of all finished goods and services produced by a country's nationals, regardless of location, in a specific time period. |
| Human Development Index (HDI) | A composite measure that combines life expectancy, education, and income to assess and compare levels of development across countries. |
| income distribution | The way income is divided among individuals or households in a population, often measured by inequality indices. |
| infant mortality rates | The number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a population. |
| informal economy | Economic activities that are not officially recognized or regulated by the government, often including unregistered businesses and cash transactions. |
| labor-market participation | The involvement of individuals in the workforce and their engagement in paid employment. |
| literacy rates | The percentage of a population that can read and write at a basic level. |
| per capita | A measurement calculated by dividing a total by the number of people in a population. |
| renewable energy | Energy sources that are naturally replenished and sustainable, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power. |
| reproductive health | A state of physical, mental, and social well-being related to reproduction and the ability to have healthy pregnancies and children. |
| sectoral structure of an economy | The division of an economy into sectors (primary, secondary, tertiary) based on the types of economic activities and industries. |
| spatial variation | Differences in characteristics, conditions, or phenomena across different geographic locations or regions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| economic development | The process of improving the economic well-being, productivity, and standard of living in a region or country. |
| employment opportunities | Available positions, jobs, and career advancement possibilities available to individuals in the labor market. |
| gender parity | A state of equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities between men and women in social, economic, and political spheres. |
| microloans | Small loans provided to individuals or small businesses, typically in developing countries, to support entrepreneurship and economic self-sufficiency. |
| standards of living | The level of material comfort and access to goods, services, and resources available to individuals or communities. |
| wage equity | Equal pay for equal work; the principle that men and women should receive the same compensation for performing the same job. |
| workforce | The total number of people employed or available for employment in a country, region, or organization. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| commodity dependence | An economic condition where a country relies heavily on the export of raw materials or single commodities, making it vulnerable to price fluctuations and limiting economic diversification. |
| dependency theory | A development theory arguing that poorer nations remain economically dependent on wealthier nations due to colonial and imperial relationships, limiting their independent development. |
| Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth | A development theory that describes how economies progress through distinct stages from traditional societies to high mass consumption economies. |
| spatial variations in development | Differences in economic and social development levels across different geographic regions and locations. |
| World System Theory | Wallerstein's theory that explains global inequality through the interconnected relationship between core, periphery, and semi-periphery nations in the world economy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| comparative advantage | The ability of a country or region to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another country, making it economically efficient to specialize in that product. |
| complementarity | The condition where different regions or countries possess resources or products that are needed by others, creating mutual benefits through trade. |
| debt crises | Situations where countries or regions accumulate unsustainable levels of debt, leading to economic instability and financial difficulties. |
| deindustrialization | The decline of manufacturing industries and industrial employment in a region or country, often accompanied by economic restructuring and job losses. |
| economic development | The process of improving the economic well-being, productivity, and standard of living in a region or country. |
| European Union | A political and economic union of European countries that facilitates free trade, movement of people, and coordinated economic policies among member states. |
| free trade agreements | International agreements between countries that reduce or eliminate tariffs and trade barriers to increase the flow of goods and services. |
| global financial crises | Severe disruptions in international financial systems that affect multiple economies, such as debt crises or banking collapses. |
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and integration of people, economies, and cultures across the world through trade, technology, and communication. |
| interdependence | The mutual reliance of countries on each other for goods, services, and economic stability in the global economy. |
| International Monetary Fund | An international lending agency that provides financial assistance and policy guidance to countries experiencing economic difficulties. |
| international trade | The exchange of goods and services between countries, involving the movement of products across national borders. |
| Mercosur | A South American trade bloc that promotes free trade and economic integration among its member countries. |
| microloans | Small loans provided to individuals or small businesses, typically in developing countries, to support entrepreneurship and economic self-sufficiency. |
| neoliberal policies | Economic policies that emphasize free markets, reduced government intervention, privatization, and deregulation to promote economic growth and globalization. |
| Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries | The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, a cartel of oil-producing nations that coordinates petroleum production and pricing. |
| tariffs | Taxes imposed on imported goods that increase their price and protect domestic industries from foreign competition. |
| World Trade Organization | An international organization that oversees global trade agreements, resolves trade disputes, and promotes free trade among member nations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agglomeration | The clustering of related industries and businesses in the same geographic area to benefit from shared resources and infrastructure. |
| core regions | Economically developed, industrialized areas that are centers of wealth, technology, and political power in the global economy. |
| deindustrialization | The decline of manufacturing industries and industrial employment in a region or country, often accompanied by economic restructuring and job losses. |
| economic restructuring | The reorganization of an economy's industries and labor force in response to changing economic conditions and global competition. |
| economies of scale | Cost advantages gained by producing goods in large quantities, reducing the per-unit cost of production. |
| export-processing zones | Designated areas where foreign companies can import raw materials, manufacture products, and export finished goods with reduced tariffs and regulations. |
| free-trade zones | Geographic areas where goods can be imported, stored, and processed with minimal customs duties and trade restrictions. |
| growth poles | Geographic centers of economic growth and development that attract investment, create jobs, and stimulate surrounding regional development. |
| high technology industries | Economic sectors focused on advanced technology and innovation, such as information technology, biotechnology, and telecommunications. |
| interdependence | The mutual reliance of countries on each other for goods, services, and economic stability in the global economy. |
| international division of labor | The specialization of countries in different stages of production based on their economic development, resources, and comparative advantages. |
| international trade | The exchange of goods and services between countries, involving the movement of products across national borders. |
| just-in-time delivery | A production and supply chain method where materials and products are delivered exactly when needed, minimizing inventory storage. |
| multiplier effects | The cumulative economic impact when spending by one entity generates additional income and spending throughout the economy. |
| newly industrialized countries | Developing nations that have experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth, often through manufacturing and export-oriented production. |
| outsourcing | The practice of contracting work or production to external companies, often in other countries, to reduce costs. |
| post-Fordist methods of production | Modern production approaches that emphasize flexibility, customization, and technological innovation as alternatives to mass production assembly lines. |
| service sectors | Industries that provide services rather than physical goods, including finance, retail, healthcare, and tourism. |
| special economic zones | Designated geographic areas with special economic regulations and incentives designed to attract foreign investment and manufacturing. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| climate change | Long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather patterns, primarily caused by human activities such as greenhouse gas emissions. |
| ecotourism | Tourism based in natural environments that aims to protect the environment while providing economic benefits and employment to local populations. |
| industrialization | The development of industries in a country or region on a large scale, involving the transformation of economies from agricultural to manufacturing-based. |
| mass consumption | The widespread purchasing and use of goods and services by large populations, often leading to increased resource use and waste. |
| natural-resource depletion | The reduction or exhaustion of natural resources such as forests, minerals, and water due to overuse or extraction. |
| pollution | The introduction of harmful substances or contaminants into the environment that damage ecosystems and human health. |
| public transportation | Systems of buses, trains, and other vehicles available to the general public for moving people within and between urban areas. |
| small-scale finance | Financial services and lending programs designed to support small businesses and local economic development in communities. |
| spatial development | The geographic patterns and processes of how land, resources, and infrastructure are organized and developed across space. |
| sustainability principles | Guidelines and practices designed to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. |
| Sustainable Development Goals | A set of United Nations objectives designed to measure progress in development across economic, social, and environmental dimensions. |
| sustainable development policies | Government and organizational strategies designed to balance economic growth, environmental protection, and social well-being. |
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