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9.3 The Greenhouse Effect

7 min readdecember 20, 2022

Jenni MacLean

Jenni MacLean

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jenni MacLean

Jenni MacLean

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

The Greenhouse Effect

The  is the process by which energy from the sun is trapped in the form of heat by various types of gas. It is a natural process that helps regulate the temperature of the Earth's surface!

Although the sun is incredibly hot and releases both thermal and light energy, the energy that actually reaches the Earth is visible light and ultraviolet radiation. When the sun's energy hits the Earth's surface, some of it is absorbed and re-emitted as lower-energy infrared radiation. That energy then begins to move away from the Earth and back into space.

However, the Earth's atmosphere is composed of a number of gases, including water vapor, carbon dioxide, , and , known as greenhouse gases. So when the infrared radiation sent back from Earth's surface reaches the atmosphere, a portion of it is trapped by gases instead of being lost. This phenomenon allows the surface of the Earth to rise in temperature. 

Greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation and convert it to heat energy, holding it primarily in the troposphere. The is a vital process that keeps the Earth warm enough for life to exist. Without these gasses converting and trapping energy close to Earth's surface, it would be too cold for modern life to exist. 

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Greenhouse-effect-t2.svg

Image Courtesy of WikiMedia

Greenhouse Effect in Review

  1. The sun emits energy in the form of light and heat, which travels through space and reaches the Earth's atmosphere.
  2. Some of this energy is absorbed by the Earth's surface and re-emitted as infrared radiation, a type of heat.
  3. The Earth's atmosphere contains greenhouse gases.
  4. Infrared radiation emitted by the Earth is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which trap heat and cause the temperature of the surface to rise.

Greenhouse Gases and Thermal Retention

Certain gases have what is known as a higher  property, meaning that they are able to hold onto heat energy at a greater rate than others.

Greenhouse gases have a high property. They include:

·      Carbon dioxide (CO2)

·     

·      Water vapor

·     

·      Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

While water vapor is a greenhouse gas and has , it has a short residence time in the atmosphere, which means that it does not contribute significantly to global climate change. In fact, different greenhouse gases have varying potency when it comes to their potential impact on climate change.

Global Warming Potential

The global warming potential (GWP) of a gas is used to distinguish its potential impact on global climate change. GWP estimates how much a molecule of any compound could contribute to global warming within 100 years in comparison to carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide has a GWP of 1, which is why it is often used as a comparison point for other glasses. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have the highest GWP (13,000), followed by (300), then (25).

The GWP of a gas is calculated by multiplying the gas's warming effect by its atmospheric lifetime and the ratio of its global warming effect to that of CO2. For example, since the GWP of is 25, this means that one ton of has the same warming effect as 25 tons of CO2 over a 100-year time period.

Why care about GWP? GWP is an important measure because it helps policymakers and researchers understand the relative impact of different greenhouse gases on global warming. It is used to set targets and policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impacts of global warming.

Sources of Greenhouse Gases

Carbon Dioxide

Natural sources of carbon dioxide emissions:

  • Carbon dioxide naturally occurs as a byproduct of the metabolic reaction of

  • release a large amount of CO2 and ash, which upon release can have significant short-term effects on climate. Historic large-scale eruptions have been at fault for reducing the global average temperature by blocking solar radiation. 🌋
  • The decay of organic matter is another natural source of CO2. As plants and animals die, they decompose, releasing CO2 into the atmosphere. ☠️

Human-induced sources of increased CO2 emissions include:

  • Carbon dioxide is produced during the combustion of . Burning of , including the use of coal, oil, and natural gas for electricity generation, transportation, and , is the largest source of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. 🛢️
  • is another human-induced source of CO2 emission issues. Trees absorb CO2 from the atmosphere as they grow and photosynthesize. When trees are cut down, the carbon dioxide intake process is disrupted, leading to an increase in atmospheric CO2. An example of this is mass in the Amazon Rainforest, which is a terrestrial carbon dioxide sink. 🌳
  • feed into and CO2 emissions. Changes in land use, such as the conversion of forests to agricultural land can increase the release of CO2 into the atmosphere. 🌾
  • Industrial manufacturing and processes also emit carbon dioxide. From cement production to waste decomposition, industries also contribute to increased carbon dioxide. 

Methane

Natural sources of emissions include:

  • , such as swamps and marshes, produce through the decomposition of organic matter.

  • In the guts of animals, can be produced, meaning animals can create through the digestion of their food.

  • Wildfires can also release into the atmosphere. 🔥

Human-induced sources of include:

  • can contribute to emissions. The extraction and transportation of , including coal, oil, and natural gas, can release into the atmosphere.

  • are a significant source of emissions, as organic waste breaks down in low-oxygen conditions and releases gas into the atmosphere.

  • are a significant source of increased atmospheric . The raising of livestock, including cows, sheep, and goats, is a major source of emissions due to the digestion of their food and the decomposition of manure. Increased cattle farming created a large-scale increase. 🐄

  • Some , such as the production of iron and steel, also emit .

Water Vapor

Natural sources of water vapor include:

  • Water vapor is released into the atmosphere through the process of , which occurs when the sun's energy heats the surface of oceans, lakes, and other bodies of water. 💧

  • Plants release water vapor into the atmosphere through a process called , which occurs when water is absorbed by the roots and transported to the leaves, where it is released into the air through small pores called stomata. 🌿

  • Animals release water vapor into the atmosphere through the process of , which occurs when they breathe out air that contains water vapor.

Human-induced sources of increased water vapor include:

  • Some , such as the production of electricity, can release water vapor into the atmosphere as a byproduct of burning . 🏭

  • , such as irrigation and the application of fertilizers, can also release water vapor into the atmosphere.

Nitrous Oxide

Natural sources of include:

  • is naturally produced in soil through the decomposition of organic matter and during the , especially in low-oxygen environments like and the oceans.

  • Lightning also can break down nitrogen molecules and produce in the atmosphere. ⚡

Human-induced sources of increased atmospheric :

  • are the main source of increased . is produced in agriculture through the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers and the application of animal manure to fields. 🌽

  • The industrial production of nitric acid and the burning of , especially the burning of coal for electric power generation, can also release a significant amount of into the atmosphere.

  • The decomposition of organic waste in and sewage treatment plants can also release into the atmosphere.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a group of man-made chemicals that were once widely used as aerosol propellants. CFCs are highly potent greenhouse gases that contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer in addition to the warming of the Earth's atmosphere.

All of the main sources of CFCs are human-induced:

  • CFCs were widely used as refrigerants in refrigerators, air conditioners, and other cooling systems. ❄️

  • Solvents to clean electronic equipment and manufacture metal.

  • CFCs were used as foam-blowing agents in the production of foam products, such as insulation and packaging materials.

CFCs are no longer produced or used in many countries due to the negative impacts they have on the ozone layer and their exceptionally high GWP. In 1987, the was signed, which called for the phasing out of CFC production. As a result, CFC emissions have significantly decreased in recent years. However, CFCs that have already been released into the atmosphere continue to impact the environment.

Learning Summary

The is important because it helps to regulate the Earth's temperature and make it habitable for living things. Without the , the Earth's average temperature would be much colder, making it difficult for life as we know it to exist. This is thanks to the high properties of greenhouse gases.

However, the large-scale increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is contributing to climate change, which has environmental impacts ranging from frequent and severe heatwaves to droughts and storms to rising sea levels. Using GWP, efforts to target the reduction of greenhouse gases can more successfully evaluate the different potencies of greenhouse gases and inform regulatory policies for human-sourced emissions.

🎥 Watch: AP Environmental Science Streams

Key Terms to Review (23)

Agricultural Activities

: Agricultural activities encompass all human actions related to cultivating crops, raising livestock, and producing food, fiber, and other agricultural products.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

: Carbon dioxide is a colorless gas naturally present in Earth's atmosphere. It is released through natural processes like respiration and volcanic eruptions but also through human activities such as burning fossil fuels. CO2 is a major greenhouse gas contributing to global warming.

Cellular Respiration

: Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose (sugar) into energy (ATP) through a series of chemical reactions. It occurs in both plants and animals and is essential for their survival.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are synthetic compounds made up of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine atoms. They were commonly used in aerosol propellants, refrigerants, and foam-blowing agents but have been phased out due to their harmful effects on the ozone layer.

Deforestation

: Deforestation refers to the clearing, removal, or destruction of forests. It involves the permanent conversion of forested areas into non-forest land for various purposes such as agriculture, urbanization, or logging.

Denitrification

: Denitrification is a natural process in which certain bacteria convert nitrates (NO3-) into nitrogen gas (N2), releasing it back into the atmosphere. It occurs primarily in oxygen-depleted environments, such as wetlands and soil.

Evaporation

: Evaporation is the process by which a liquid turns into vapor or gas due to heat energy. It occurs when molecules at the surface gain enough energy to escape into the atmosphere.

Fossil Fuel Extraction and Transportation

: Fossil fuel extraction and transportation refers to the process of extracting fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas) from the Earth's crust and transporting them to be used as energy sources.

Fossil Fuels

: Fossil fuels are energy-rich substances formed from ancient organic matter buried deep within the Earth's crust. They include coal, oil, and natural gas. Fossil fuels are burned to release energy but also release carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere.

Global warming potential (GWP)

: Global warming potential (GWP) is a measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas can trap in the atmosphere over a specific time period, compared to carbon dioxide. It helps assess the impact of different gases on global warming.

Greenhouse Effect

: The greenhouse effect is the process by which certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun, causing an increase in temperature on the planet. It acts like a blanket around the Earth, allowing sunlight to enter but preventing some of the heat from escaping back into space.

Industrial Processes

: Industrial processes refer to the methods and activities used in manufacturing, production, and other economic activities that involve the transformation of raw materials into finished goods or services.

Land Use Changes

: Land use changes refer to the alteration of how land is utilized, such as converting forests into agricultural fields or urban areas. These changes can have significant impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity.

Landfills

: Landfills are designated areas where solid waste is disposed of in a controlled manner. They involve burying waste materials in layers with soil coverings to minimize environmental impacts.

Methane

: Methane is a potent greenhouse gas (GHG) that is released into the atmosphere through natural processes and human activities. It has a much higher warming potential than carbon dioxide, although its atmospheric concentration is lower.

Montreal Protocol

: The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement that aims to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production and use of substances that deplete it, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

Nitrogen Cycle

: The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical forms in the environment. It involves nitrogen fixation, nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, and denitrification.

Nitrous oxide

: Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas that is released into the atmosphere through natural processes and human activities. It contributes to global warming and ozone depletion.

Organic Matter Decay

: Organic matter decay is the process by which dead plants and animals break down naturally over time. It involves the decomposition of organic materials into simpler compounds by microorganisms like bacteria and fungi.

Thermal Retention

: Thermal retention refers to the ability of a substance or material to hold heat energy for an extended period of time.

Transpiration

: Transpiration is the process by which plants release water vapor into the atmosphere through their leaves. It helps to cool down the plant and also plays a role in transporting nutrients from the roots to other parts of the plant.

Volcanic Eruptions

: Volcanic eruptions are natural events where molten rock, ash, and gases are expelled from a volcano. They can cause significant damage to the surrounding environment and have long-lasting effects on climate.

Wetlands

: Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil either permanently or seasonally. They provide essential ecosystem services such as water filtration, flood control, and habitat for diverse plant and animal species.

9.3 The Greenhouse Effect

7 min readdecember 20, 2022

Jenni MacLean

Jenni MacLean

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Jenni MacLean

Jenni MacLean

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

The Greenhouse Effect

The  is the process by which energy from the sun is trapped in the form of heat by various types of gas. It is a natural process that helps regulate the temperature of the Earth's surface!

Although the sun is incredibly hot and releases both thermal and light energy, the energy that actually reaches the Earth is visible light and ultraviolet radiation. When the sun's energy hits the Earth's surface, some of it is absorbed and re-emitted as lower-energy infrared radiation. That energy then begins to move away from the Earth and back into space.

However, the Earth's atmosphere is composed of a number of gases, including water vapor, carbon dioxide, , and , known as greenhouse gases. So when the infrared radiation sent back from Earth's surface reaches the atmosphere, a portion of it is trapped by gases instead of being lost. This phenomenon allows the surface of the Earth to rise in temperature. 

Greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation and convert it to heat energy, holding it primarily in the troposphere. The is a vital process that keeps the Earth warm enough for life to exist. Without these gasses converting and trapping energy close to Earth's surface, it would be too cold for modern life to exist. 

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Greenhouse-effect-t2.svg

Image Courtesy of WikiMedia

Greenhouse Effect in Review

  1. The sun emits energy in the form of light and heat, which travels through space and reaches the Earth's atmosphere.
  2. Some of this energy is absorbed by the Earth's surface and re-emitted as infrared radiation, a type of heat.
  3. The Earth's atmosphere contains greenhouse gases.
  4. Infrared radiation emitted by the Earth is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which trap heat and cause the temperature of the surface to rise.

Greenhouse Gases and Thermal Retention

Certain gases have what is known as a higher  property, meaning that they are able to hold onto heat energy at a greater rate than others.

Greenhouse gases have a high property. They include:

·      Carbon dioxide (CO2)

·     

·      Water vapor

·     

·      Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

While water vapor is a greenhouse gas and has , it has a short residence time in the atmosphere, which means that it does not contribute significantly to global climate change. In fact, different greenhouse gases have varying potency when it comes to their potential impact on climate change.

Global Warming Potential

The global warming potential (GWP) of a gas is used to distinguish its potential impact on global climate change. GWP estimates how much a molecule of any compound could contribute to global warming within 100 years in comparison to carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide has a GWP of 1, which is why it is often used as a comparison point for other glasses. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have the highest GWP (13,000), followed by (300), then (25).

The GWP of a gas is calculated by multiplying the gas's warming effect by its atmospheric lifetime and the ratio of its global warming effect to that of CO2. For example, since the GWP of is 25, this means that one ton of has the same warming effect as 25 tons of CO2 over a 100-year time period.

Why care about GWP? GWP is an important measure because it helps policymakers and researchers understand the relative impact of different greenhouse gases on global warming. It is used to set targets and policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impacts of global warming.

Sources of Greenhouse Gases

Carbon Dioxide

Natural sources of carbon dioxide emissions:

  • Carbon dioxide naturally occurs as a byproduct of the metabolic reaction of

  • release a large amount of CO2 and ash, which upon release can have significant short-term effects on climate. Historic large-scale eruptions have been at fault for reducing the global average temperature by blocking solar radiation. 🌋
  • The decay of organic matter is another natural source of CO2. As plants and animals die, they decompose, releasing CO2 into the atmosphere. ☠️

Human-induced sources of increased CO2 emissions include:

  • Carbon dioxide is produced during the combustion of . Burning of , including the use of coal, oil, and natural gas for electricity generation, transportation, and , is the largest source of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. 🛢️
  • is another human-induced source of CO2 emission issues. Trees absorb CO2 from the atmosphere as they grow and photosynthesize. When trees are cut down, the carbon dioxide intake process is disrupted, leading to an increase in atmospheric CO2. An example of this is mass in the Amazon Rainforest, which is a terrestrial carbon dioxide sink. 🌳
  • feed into and CO2 emissions. Changes in land use, such as the conversion of forests to agricultural land can increase the release of CO2 into the atmosphere. 🌾
  • Industrial manufacturing and processes also emit carbon dioxide. From cement production to waste decomposition, industries also contribute to increased carbon dioxide. 

Methane

Natural sources of emissions include:

  • , such as swamps and marshes, produce through the decomposition of organic matter.

  • In the guts of animals, can be produced, meaning animals can create through the digestion of their food.

  • Wildfires can also release into the atmosphere. 🔥

Human-induced sources of include:

  • can contribute to emissions. The extraction and transportation of , including coal, oil, and natural gas, can release into the atmosphere.

  • are a significant source of emissions, as organic waste breaks down in low-oxygen conditions and releases gas into the atmosphere.

  • are a significant source of increased atmospheric . The raising of livestock, including cows, sheep, and goats, is a major source of emissions due to the digestion of their food and the decomposition of manure. Increased cattle farming created a large-scale increase. 🐄

  • Some , such as the production of iron and steel, also emit .

Water Vapor

Natural sources of water vapor include:

  • Water vapor is released into the atmosphere through the process of , which occurs when the sun's energy heats the surface of oceans, lakes, and other bodies of water. 💧

  • Plants release water vapor into the atmosphere through a process called , which occurs when water is absorbed by the roots and transported to the leaves, where it is released into the air through small pores called stomata. 🌿

  • Animals release water vapor into the atmosphere through the process of , which occurs when they breathe out air that contains water vapor.

Human-induced sources of increased water vapor include:

  • Some , such as the production of electricity, can release water vapor into the atmosphere as a byproduct of burning . 🏭

  • , such as irrigation and the application of fertilizers, can also release water vapor into the atmosphere.

Nitrous Oxide

Natural sources of include:

  • is naturally produced in soil through the decomposition of organic matter and during the , especially in low-oxygen environments like and the oceans.

  • Lightning also can break down nitrogen molecules and produce in the atmosphere. ⚡

Human-induced sources of increased atmospheric :

  • are the main source of increased . is produced in agriculture through the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers and the application of animal manure to fields. 🌽

  • The industrial production of nitric acid and the burning of , especially the burning of coal for electric power generation, can also release a significant amount of into the atmosphere.

  • The decomposition of organic waste in and sewage treatment plants can also release into the atmosphere.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a group of man-made chemicals that were once widely used as aerosol propellants. CFCs are highly potent greenhouse gases that contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer in addition to the warming of the Earth's atmosphere.

All of the main sources of CFCs are human-induced:

  • CFCs were widely used as refrigerants in refrigerators, air conditioners, and other cooling systems. ❄️

  • Solvents to clean electronic equipment and manufacture metal.

  • CFCs were used as foam-blowing agents in the production of foam products, such as insulation and packaging materials.

CFCs are no longer produced or used in many countries due to the negative impacts they have on the ozone layer and their exceptionally high GWP. In 1987, the was signed, which called for the phasing out of CFC production. As a result, CFC emissions have significantly decreased in recent years. However, CFCs that have already been released into the atmosphere continue to impact the environment.

Learning Summary

The is important because it helps to regulate the Earth's temperature and make it habitable for living things. Without the , the Earth's average temperature would be much colder, making it difficult for life as we know it to exist. This is thanks to the high properties of greenhouse gases.

However, the large-scale increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is contributing to climate change, which has environmental impacts ranging from frequent and severe heatwaves to droughts and storms to rising sea levels. Using GWP, efforts to target the reduction of greenhouse gases can more successfully evaluate the different potencies of greenhouse gases and inform regulatory policies for human-sourced emissions.

🎥 Watch: AP Environmental Science Streams

Key Terms to Review (23)

Agricultural Activities

: Agricultural activities encompass all human actions related to cultivating crops, raising livestock, and producing food, fiber, and other agricultural products.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

: Carbon dioxide is a colorless gas naturally present in Earth's atmosphere. It is released through natural processes like respiration and volcanic eruptions but also through human activities such as burning fossil fuels. CO2 is a major greenhouse gas contributing to global warming.

Cellular Respiration

: Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose (sugar) into energy (ATP) through a series of chemical reactions. It occurs in both plants and animals and is essential for their survival.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are synthetic compounds made up of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine atoms. They were commonly used in aerosol propellants, refrigerants, and foam-blowing agents but have been phased out due to their harmful effects on the ozone layer.

Deforestation

: Deforestation refers to the clearing, removal, or destruction of forests. It involves the permanent conversion of forested areas into non-forest land for various purposes such as agriculture, urbanization, or logging.

Denitrification

: Denitrification is a natural process in which certain bacteria convert nitrates (NO3-) into nitrogen gas (N2), releasing it back into the atmosphere. It occurs primarily in oxygen-depleted environments, such as wetlands and soil.

Evaporation

: Evaporation is the process by which a liquid turns into vapor or gas due to heat energy. It occurs when molecules at the surface gain enough energy to escape into the atmosphere.

Fossil Fuel Extraction and Transportation

: Fossil fuel extraction and transportation refers to the process of extracting fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas) from the Earth's crust and transporting them to be used as energy sources.

Fossil Fuels

: Fossil fuels are energy-rich substances formed from ancient organic matter buried deep within the Earth's crust. They include coal, oil, and natural gas. Fossil fuels are burned to release energy but also release carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere.

Global warming potential (GWP)

: Global warming potential (GWP) is a measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas can trap in the atmosphere over a specific time period, compared to carbon dioxide. It helps assess the impact of different gases on global warming.

Greenhouse Effect

: The greenhouse effect is the process by which certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun, causing an increase in temperature on the planet. It acts like a blanket around the Earth, allowing sunlight to enter but preventing some of the heat from escaping back into space.

Industrial Processes

: Industrial processes refer to the methods and activities used in manufacturing, production, and other economic activities that involve the transformation of raw materials into finished goods or services.

Land Use Changes

: Land use changes refer to the alteration of how land is utilized, such as converting forests into agricultural fields or urban areas. These changes can have significant impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity.

Landfills

: Landfills are designated areas where solid waste is disposed of in a controlled manner. They involve burying waste materials in layers with soil coverings to minimize environmental impacts.

Methane

: Methane is a potent greenhouse gas (GHG) that is released into the atmosphere through natural processes and human activities. It has a much higher warming potential than carbon dioxide, although its atmospheric concentration is lower.

Montreal Protocol

: The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement that aims to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production and use of substances that deplete it, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

Nitrogen Cycle

: The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical forms in the environment. It involves nitrogen fixation, nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, and denitrification.

Nitrous oxide

: Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas that is released into the atmosphere through natural processes and human activities. It contributes to global warming and ozone depletion.

Organic Matter Decay

: Organic matter decay is the process by which dead plants and animals break down naturally over time. It involves the decomposition of organic materials into simpler compounds by microorganisms like bacteria and fungi.

Thermal Retention

: Thermal retention refers to the ability of a substance or material to hold heat energy for an extended period of time.

Transpiration

: Transpiration is the process by which plants release water vapor into the atmosphere through their leaves. It helps to cool down the plant and also plays a role in transporting nutrients from the roots to other parts of the plant.

Volcanic Eruptions

: Volcanic eruptions are natural events where molten rock, ash, and gases are expelled from a volcano. They can cause significant damage to the surrounding environment and have long-lasting effects on climate.

Wetlands

: Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil either permanently or seasonally. They provide essential ecosystem services such as water filtration, flood control, and habitat for diverse plant and animal species.


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.