In addition to the constitutionally established institutions of government institutions (the executive, legislative, and judicial branches), the American political system also consists of an organized group of linkage institutions that allow ordinary, unelected American citizens opportunities to interact and connect with government officials. There are four primary linkage institutions—political parties, interest groups, the media, and elections.

Political Parties

Although political parties are not mentioned in the Constitution, and many of the Framers warned against forming them, the first parties were birthed shortly after the ratification of the Constitution and are a central part of the modern political system in the United States. Unlike other developed countries that use multi-party systems, the US utilizes a two-party system, where internal barriers prevent third parties from gaining enough support to win elections. The Democratic and Republican parties dominate the current two-party system in the US. Still, both have undergone significant changes since their creation in the nineteenth century due to critical elections and voter realignment. While third parties rarely pose significant challenges to major party candidates, they play a pivotal role in advancing issues that would otherwise be ignored by the other parties—and in some cases, third-party candidates have affected the outcome of presidential elections.

Interest Groups

Like political parties, interest groups are formed to influence government policymakers, but they don't directly recruit and run campaigns as parties do. While political parties represent millions of Americans by forming a platform stating beliefs on a wide range of issues, interest groups tend to have a more narrow focus, especially single-issue groups like the National Rifle Association (NRA) and the American Association of Retired Persons. The primary goal of political parties is to win elections and control the government, while the primary purpose of interest groups is to influence party candidates once they win office. Although interest groups are not mentioned in the Constitution, the Framers were well aware of the potential damage they could cause if left unregulated (📽️ Watch: AP Gov - Explaining Federalist #10).

The Media

The mass media in the context of American politics consists of broadcast and cable TV news, AM talk radio, news websites, social media platforms, and various forms of print media. Like political parties and interest groups, the media links people to the government by setting the public policy agenda—attempting to influence viewers, readers, and listeners by deciding what to report on and what to ignore. One recent development is the increasing significance of consumer-driven media in which news organizations (especially those that primarily operate online) produce stories that cater to viewers' ideological preferences—whether the information is substantive or not. Unlike parties and groups, the Constitution lays out specific protections for a free press within the 1st Amendment.   

Elections

Many people view voting in elections as the most important of all the linkage institutions. Elections provide Americans with the most direct opportunity to shape the system in which they're governed. While voting rights have expanded throughout American history, at the birth of the republic, many groups were denied suffrage—most notably persons of color and women. Over time, Congress and the Courts have expanded voting rights to historically marginalized groups, and nearly all Americans have the opportunity to vote in modern elections. Despite these expansions of suffrage, voter turnout in the United States continues to lag behind other developed countries, especially among younger voters. The modern electoral landscape now involves the increased use of professional consultants, massive campaign spending, and the integration of the Internet and social media throughout all phases of the campaign process.

Key Ideas

College Board: "Factors associated with political ideology, efficacy, structural barriers, and demographics influence the nature and degree of political participation."

In the US, political ideology, efficacy, structural barriers, and demographics all play a role in determining the nature and level of political participation. Political ideology refers to beliefs about government and power, while efficacy refers to belief in the ability to impact political outcomes. Structural barriers refer to systemic obstacles to political participation, and demographics such as age, race, income, etc., also influence participation.

College Board: "Political parties, interest groups, and social movements provide opportunities for participation and influence how people relate to government and policy-makers."

In the US, political parties, interest groups, and social movements provide avenues for citizen participation and shape the relationship between citizens and the government. Political parties bring together individuals with similar ideologies, interest groups represent specific interests, and social movements advocate for change. These groups offer opportunities for citizens to get involved through activities such as campaigning, lobbying, and activism, and help shape public policy by raising awareness and advocating for specific issues.

College Board: "The impact of federal policies on campaigning and electoral rules continues to be contested by both sides of the political spectrum."

The impact of federal policies on campaigning and electoral rules is a contentious issue in the US, with both political sides holding strong opinions. Some argue that federal policies ensure a fair and democratic process, while others argue that they interfere with states' rights and individual freedoms. The debate continues to be a central issue in American politics, and the extent of federal policies remains a subject of ongoing debate and negotiation.

College Board: "The various forms of media provide citizens with political information and influence the ways in which they participate politically."

The media plays a crucial role in shaping political information and participation in the US. Traditional news media, such as TV and newspapers, provide political information and shape public opinion. Social media provides real-time access and opportunities for political engagement. Entertainment media, including movies and TV shows, can also impact political attitudes and serve as a platform for activism. The media significantly impacts citizens' political information and participation in the US.

Key Terms

• Campaign finance law: regulations that govern the raising and spending of money by political campaigns.

• Campaign fundraising: the process of raising money to support a political campaign.

• Candidate-centered elections: elections that focus on individual candidates' personalities, qualifications, and issues of individual candidates, rather than the political party or ideology they represent.

• Caucus: a meeting of members of a political party or interest group members to select candidates, discuss and make decisions on political issues, or make nominations.

• Close primary: a primary election in which only registered party members can vote for their party's candidates.

• Elections: a formal process in which citizens vote to choose political leaders or to make decisions on political issues.

• Electoral College: a group of individuals chosen by each state to formally elect the President and Vice President of the United States.

• Free-rider problem: refers to the tendency for individuals to not participate in elections, as they believe their vote will not significantly impact the outcome and that others will vote on their behalf.

• Gender gap: the difference in political attitudes and behaviors between men and women.

• Horse race journalism: a type of political journalism that focuses on the competition and strategies of political campaigns, rather than the issues and candidates.

• Ideological movements: groups of people who share a common political ideology and work together to promote and advance their beliefs.

• Incumbency advantage: the advantage that incumbent politicians have over their opponents, due to their higher visibility, name recognition, and access to resources.

• Interest groups: organizations that seek to influence public policy by advocating for specific interests or causes.

• Iron triangles: a close and stable relationship between a policy-making agency, a constituent interest group, and a congressional committee, that results in the protection and promotion of a particular policy.

• Issue networks: informal networks of individuals and organizations with a common interest in a specific policy area, that work together to influence policy outcomes.

• Linkage institutions: organizations and processes that link citizens to their government, such as political parties, interest groups, and the media.

• Media: channels of communication, such as television, newspapers, and social media, that convey information and ideas to a broad audience.

• Media partisanship: the bias or preference for one political party or ideology over another, demonstrated by media outlets or journalists.

• National convention: a meeting of the delegates of a political party to nominate candidates, adopt a party platform, and conduct other party business.

• Open primary: a primary election in which any voter, regardless of political party affiliation, can vote for candidates of any political party.

• Party identification: the psychological connection that individuals have to a political party, based on shared beliefs, values, and experiences.

• Party platform: a written statement of a political party's political principles, policies, and positions of a political party.

• Party-line voting: voting for a political party's candidates, regardless of the individual candidates' qualifications or positions on specific issues.

• Political action committees (PACs): organizations that raise and spend money to influence the outcome of political campaigns or elections.

• Political efficacy: the belief that individuals can make a difference in the political process, by participating in political activities and making their voices heard.

• Political parties: organizations that bring together individuals with similar political beliefs, values, and goals, to participate in the political process.

• Professional Consultants: individuals or firms that provide expert advice and strategies to political candidates and campaigns to help them win elections.

• Proportional Voting: a system of voting that distributes legislative seats based on the proportion of votes received by each political party, rather than winner-takes-all.

• Prospective Voting: a type of voting where citizens make decisions based on their expectations and predictions about a candidate's future behavior and performance.

• Rational-Choice Voting: a type of voting where individuals make decisions based on self-interest and a cost-benefit analysis of the available options.

• Regional Realignments: changes in political party affiliations and voting patterns in different regions of a country over time.

• Retrospective Voting: a type of voting where citizens make decisions based on a candidate's past behavior and performance.

• Single-Issue Groups: organizations that focus on a specific issue or set of issues, rather than a broader political agenda.

• Suffrage: the right to vote in political elections.

• Swing State: a state in which an election's outcome is considered uncertain, as it may be won by either of the two major political parties.

• Third-Party Agendas: political platforms and goals put forth by political parties other than the two major parties in a country.

• Voter Registration: the process by which citizens become eligible to vote by providing personal information and meeting eligibility requirements.

• Voting Incentives: factors that motivate individuals to participate in the political process, such as rewards, benefits, or recognition.

• Voting Penalties: factors that discourage individuals from participating in the political process, such as fines, imprisonment, or other forms of punishment.

• Winner-Take-All Voting: a system of voting where the candidate with the most votes in a given election wins, regardless of the margin of victory.