| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| checks and balances | The system of constitutional provisions that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches, preventing any single branch from becoming too powerful. |
| Constitution | The supreme law of the United States that establishes the framework of the federal government and defines the relationship between the national government and the states, and between the government and the people. |
| Declaration of Independence | The 1776 document that declared the American colonies' independence from British rule and articulated the philosophy of natural rights and popular sovereignty. |
| federalism | A system of government in which power is divided between a central national government and state or regional governments. |
| limited government | The principle that a government's power is restricted and cannot be absolute, with powers defined and constrained by law. |
| natural rights | Fundamental rights that all people possess and that cannot be taken away by government, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. |
| popular sovereignty | The principle that all government power comes from and is derived from the consent of the governed. |
| republicanism | The democratic principle that the will of the people is reflected in government through the decisions and debates of their elected representatives. |
| separation of powers | The constitutional principle that divides the federal government into three branches—legislative, executive, and judicial—each with distinct powers and responsibilities. |
| social contract | An implicit agreement among people in a society to give up some freedoms and submit to government authority in exchange for protection and social order. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Brutus No. 1 | An Anti-Federalist essay that critiques the proposed Constitution and argues for greater direct participation and smaller republics. |
| elite democracy | A model of representative democracy that emphasizes limited participation in politics and civil society, with power concentrated among a select group. |
| Federalist No. 10 | A foundational essay by James Madison that discusses the dangers of factions and the benefits of a large republic with representative government. |
| nongovernmental interests | Groups and organizations outside of government that seek to influence political decision-making and policy. |
| participatory democracy | A model of representative democracy that emphasizes broad participation by citizens in politics and civil society. |
| pluralist democracy | A model of representative democracy that emphasizes group-based activism by nongovernmental interests seeking to influence political decision-making. |
| representative democracy | A form of democracy in which citizens elect representatives to make political decisions and govern on their behalf. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anti-Federalists | Opponents of the ratification of the Constitution who opposed a strong central government and wanted more power reserved to state governments. |
| central government | The national government with authority over the entire country, as opposed to state or local governments. |
| Constitution | The supreme law of the United States that establishes the framework of the federal government and defines the relationship between the national government and the states, and between the government and the people. |
| decentralized republic | A system of government where power is distributed among multiple levels, particularly state governments, rather than concentrated in a central authority. |
| elected representatives | Officials chosen by voters to act on behalf of the people in government decision-making. |
| faction | A group of citizens united by a common interest or passion that may conflict with the rights of other citizens or the common good. |
| Federalists | Supporters of the ratification of the Constitution who advocated for a strong central government with significant power over the states. |
| large republic | A representative government covering a large geographic area, which Federalists argued could better control factions and protect individual rights. |
| personal liberty | Individual freedoms and rights of citizens that Anti-Federalists feared would be threatened by a large, centralized government. |
| ratification | The formal approval and adoption of the Constitution by the states. |
| separation of powers | The constitutional principle that divides the federal government into three branches—legislative, executive, and judicial—each with distinct powers and responsibilities. |
| small republic | A decentralized representative government covering a limited geographic area, which Anti-Federalists believed better protected personal liberty and democratic participation. |
| state governments | The governments of individual states that retain powers not delegated to the federal government under the Constitution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Articles of Confederation | The first constitution of the United States that established a weak central government with limited powers, adopted in 1781. |
| coin money | The exclusive power of the federal government to create and issue currency. |
| executive branch | The branch of government responsible for enforcing and administering laws, headed by the President. |
| federal government | The central national government with powers granted by the Constitution, as opposed to state governments. |
| interstate commerce | Trade and economic activity that occurs between different states, which Congress has the power to regulate. |
| national court system | A unified system of federal courts with authority to interpret laws and resolve disputes across the nation. |
| Shays' Rebellion | An armed uprising in Massachusetts (1786-1787) by farmers protesting debt collection, which demonstrated the weakness of the Articles of Confederation. |
| state constitutions | The fundamental governing documents of individual states that outline their structure and powers during the postcolonial period. |
| taxation | The power to impose and collect taxes on citizens and businesses to fund government operations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| amendment process | The formal procedure outlined in Article V for modifying the Constitution, requiring either a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress or a proposal from two-thirds of state legislatures, with ratification by three-fourths of the states. |
| Anti-Federalists | Opponents of the ratification of the Constitution who opposed a strong central government and wanted more power reserved to state governments. |
| bicameral | A legislative system divided into two separate chambers or houses, designed to balance representation and create checks on legislative power. |
| Bill of Rights | The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution that protect individual civil liberties and rights. |
| Constitutional Convention | The 1787 gathering of delegates that drafted the U.S. Constitution and negotiated the compromises necessary for its ratification. |
| Electoral College | The system by which the president is elected through votes cast by electors from each state, rather than through a direct popular vote. |
| Great Compromise | A compromise at the Constitutional Convention that created a bicameral legislature with the House of Representatives based on state population and the Senate providing equal representation for each state. |
| ratification | The formal approval and adoption of the Constitution by the states. |
| self-government | The principle of governance by the people themselves, a central debate during the drafting of the Constitution. |
| Three-Fifths Compromise | A compromise that counted enslaved persons as three-fifths of a person for purposes of representation in the House and taxation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abuse of power | The improper or unlawful exercise of authority by a public official beyond the scope of their legitimate powers. |
| checks and balances | The system of constitutional provisions that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches, preventing any single branch from becoming too powerful. |
| Congress | The legislative branch of the federal government, composed of the Senate and House of Representatives, responsible for making federal laws. |
| courts | The judicial branch of the federal government, responsible for interpreting laws and determining their constitutionality. |
| Federalist No. 51 | A Federalist Paper written by James Madison explaining how the constitutional structure of separation of powers and checks and balances prevents tyranny and controls abuses of power. |
| impeachment | The formal process by which the House of Representatives charges a public official with abuse of power or misconduct. |
| president | The head of the executive branch of the federal government, responsible for enforcing laws and commanding the armed forces. |
| public policy | Official government decisions and actions designed to address public issues and achieve specific goals. |
| removal | The process of removing a public official from office, typically following conviction in a Senate impeachment trial. |
| separation of powers | The constitutional principle that divides the federal government into three branches—legislative, executive, and judicial—each with distinct powers and responsibilities. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| block grants | National funding given to states with minimal restrictions on its use; preferred by states over other forms of federal funding. |
| categorical grants | National funding restricted to specific categories of expenditures; preferred by the national government and the most commonly used form of federal funding. |
| concurrent powers | Powers shared between both the national and state governments, such as the power to collect taxes, make and enforce laws, and build roads. |
| enumerated powers | Specific powers explicitly granted to Congress in the Constitution, such as taxation, declaring war, and regulating interstate commerce. |
| exclusive power | Power held by only one level of government, including enumerated powers written in the Constitution and implied powers inferred from the Necessary and Proper Clause. |
| federalism | A system of government in which power is divided between a central national government and state or regional governments. |
| implied powers | Powers of Congress that are not explicitly stated in the Constitution but are derived from the necessary and proper clause to carry out enumerated powers. |
| mandates | Requirements imposed by the national government on the states. |
| Necessary and Proper Clause | A constitutional provision that grants Congress the authority to enact legislation needed to carry out its enumerated powers. |
| reserved powers | Powers not delegated or enumerated to the national government but reserved to the states, as stated in the Tenth Amendment. |
| revenue sharing | National funding given to states with almost no restrictions on its use; the least commonly used form of federal funding. |
| Tenth Amendment | The constitutional amendment that reserves powers not delegated to the national government to the states and the people. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| balance of power | The distribution of authority and control between the national government and state governments in the federal system. |
| Commerce Clause | The constitutional provision that grants Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce and commerce with foreign nations. |
| Due Process Clause | Constitutional provision in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments prohibiting the government from infringing on a person's life, liberty, or property without due process of law. |
| enumerated powers | Specific powers explicitly granted to Congress in the Constitution, such as taxation, declaring war, and regulating interstate commerce. |
| Equal Protection Clause | The part of the Fourteenth Amendment that prohibits states from denying any person equal protection of the laws. |
| interstate commerce | Trade and economic activity that occurs between different states, which Congress has the power to regulate. |
| Necessary and Proper Clause | A constitutional provision that grants Congress the authority to enact legislation needed to carry out its enumerated powers. |
| Supremacy Clause | The constitutional provision that establishes that federal law is the supreme law of the land and takes precedence over state laws. |
| Supreme Court interpretations | The Court's rulings and decisions that explain the meaning and application of constitutional provisions, which can expand or limit the powers of national and state governments. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| access points | Opportunities or venues through which stakeholders and institutions can influence the policy process at different levels of government. |
| concurrent powers | Powers shared between both the national and state governments, such as the power to collect taxes, make and enforce laws, and build roads. |
| distribution of powers | The allocation of governmental authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches as established by the Constitution. |
| federal government | The central national government with powers granted by the Constitution, as opposed to state governments. |
| policymaking | The process of developing and implementing government policies; a primary area where interest groups seek to exert influence. |
| stakeholders | Individuals, groups, or organizations that have an interest in or are affected by government policy decisions. |
| state governments | The governments of individual states that retain powers not delegated to the federal government under the Constitution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bicameral | A legislative system divided into two separate chambers or houses, designed to balance representation and create checks on legislative power. |
| enumerated powers | Specific powers explicitly granted to Congress in the Constitution, such as taxation, declaring war, and regulating interstate commerce. |
| implied powers | Powers of Congress that are not explicitly stated in the Constitution but are derived from the necessary and proper clause to carry out enumerated powers. |
| interstate commerce | Trade and economic activity that occurs between different states, which Congress has the power to regulate. |
| naturalization | The legal process by which a foreign-born person becomes a citizen of the United States. |
| Necessary and Proper Clause | A constitutional provision that grants Congress the authority to enact legislation needed to carry out its enumerated powers. |
| oversight | The authority of Congress to review, monitor, and supervise the actions of executive branch agencies to ensure they implement legislation as intended. |
| republicanism | The democratic principle that the will of the people is reflected in government through the decisions and debates of their elected representatives. |
| two-party system | A political system dominated by two major political parties that compete for power. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| controversial decisions | Court rulings that generate significant public debate or disagreement due to their legal or political implications. |
| judicial independence | The principle that courts operate free from interference or pressure from the other branches of government. |
| life tenure | The permanent appointment of Supreme Court justices that allows them to serve until death or voluntary retirement, providing job security independent of political pressures. |
| Supreme Court's power | The authority and influence of the Supreme Court to interpret the Constitution and make binding legal decisions that affect the nation. |
| unpopular decisions | Court rulings that are opposed by a majority of the public or political actors. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Amendments | Formal changes or additions to the Constitution. |
| case precedent | A court decision or ruling that serves as an authoritative example or rule for future cases with similar facts and legal issues. |
| Congressional legislation | Laws passed by Congress that can modify or override the effects of Supreme Court decisions. |
| Constitutional precedent | Previously established interpretations of the Constitution that guide judicial decision-making. |
| Court-packing plan | A proposal to increase the number of Supreme Court justices to change the ideological composition of the Court. |
| Ideological balance | The distribution of judicial philosophies or political perspectives among Supreme Court justices that can shift based on new appointments. |
| Implementation of Supreme Court decisions | The process by which the president and states carry out or enforce Supreme Court rulings, which they can delay or obstruct. |
| judicial activism | A judicial philosophy asserting that courts may use judicial review to overturn current Constitutional and case precedent or invalidate legislative or executive acts. |
| Judicial appointments | The president's power to nominate judges to federal courts, which provides long-lasting influence through life-tenured positions. |
| judicial restraint | A judicial philosophy asserting that courts should limit the use of judicial review to decisions that adhere to current Constitutional and case precedent. |
| judicial review | The power of the courts to examine laws and executive actions and declare them unconstitutional if they violate the Constitution. |
| Jurisdiction | The authority of the Supreme Court to hear and decide cases; Congress can limit this by removing certain types of cases from the Court's appellate jurisdiction. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agencies | Federal organizations responsible for implementing and enforcing laws and policies in specific areas of government responsibility. |
| bureaucracy | The system of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement federal policy and carry out the responsibilities of the federal government. |
| civil service | The system of federal employees hired and promoted based on merit, professionalism, and specialization rather than political appointment. |
| commissions | Federal bodies typically composed of appointed officials that regulate specific industries or policy areas and enforce compliance. |
| departments | Major organizational units of the federal bureaucracy responsible for implementing policy in specific areas such as defense, state, or education. |
| government corporations | Federal organizations that operate like private businesses to provide services or manage resources on behalf of the government. |
| iron triangles | A three-way relationship between interest groups, government agencies, and legislative committees that work together to influence policy in a specific area. |
| issue networks | Loose coalitions of interest groups, government officials, and other stakeholders who share interest in a particular policy issue and work across party lines. |
| merit system | A hiring and promotion system based on qualifications, professionalism, specialization, and neutrality rather than political connections. |
| political patronage | The practice of appointing bureaucratic positions based on political loyalty and connections rather than merit and qualifications. |
| regulations | Rules established by federal agencies that have the force of law and specify how laws and policies will be implemented and enforced. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agencies | Federal organizations responsible for implementing and enforcing laws and policies in specific areas of government responsibility. |
| bureaucracy | The system of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement federal policy and carry out the responsibilities of the federal government. |
| delegated discretionary authority | Power granted by Congress to federal agencies to make decisions and take actions within their jurisdiction without specific legislative direction for each situation. |
| discretionary power | The authority granted to federal agencies to make independent decisions and judgments in interpreting and implementing policies within their area of responsibility. |
| regulations | Rules established by federal agencies that have the force of law and specify how laws and policies will be implemented and enforced. |
| rulemaking | The process by which federal bureaucratic agencies create and establish regulations to implement laws and policies. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bureaucracy | The system of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement federal policy and carry out the responsibilities of the federal government. |
| check of executive authorization | Congressional oversight mechanisms that limit and constrain the President's power to direct executive branch actions. |
| compliance monitoring | The process of overseeing and verifying that executive agencies are using funds appropriately and following established regulations. |
| executive branch | The branch of government responsible for enforcing and administering laws, headed by the President. |
| executive branch agencies | Federal departments and independent agencies that implement and enforce laws under the president's authority. |
| investigation and committee hearings | Congressional procedures for examining bureaucratic activity through formal inquiries and testimony before legislative committees. |
| oversight | The authority of Congress to review, monitor, and supervise the actions of executive branch agencies to ensure they implement legislation as intended. |
| policy implementation | The process of executing and carrying out policies and programs established by the administration. |
| power of the purse | Congress's authority to check the bureaucracy by controlling the appropriation or withholding of funds for federal agencies. |
| presidential authority | The constitutional and statutory powers granted to the president to direct and control executive branch operations. |
| presidential ideology | The set of political beliefs and values that guide a president's policy decisions and administrative priorities. |
| presidential influence | The president's ability to persuade and direct executive branch agencies to align with administration goals. |
| review, monitoring, and supervision | Congressional methods of examining bureaucratic agencies' activities to ensure compliance with legislative intent. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| accountability | The requirement that government officials and agencies be responsible for their actions and answerable to other branches of government and the public. |
| bureaucracy | The system of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement federal policy and carry out the responsibilities of the federal government. |
| competing interests | Conflicting goals and priorities among different branches of government that may limit their ability to work together on oversight. |
| distribution of powers | The allocation of governmental authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches as established by the Constitution. |
| formal powers | Constitutional or statutory powers explicitly granted to the president by law or the Constitution. |
| informal powers | Powers exercised by the president that are not explicitly granted by the Constitution or law, based on custom, persuasion, or political influence. |
| legislative veto | The power of Congress to reject or overturn executive branch actions or regulations. |
| policymaking | The process of developing and implementing government policies; a primary area where interest groups seek to exert influence. |
| sharing of powers | The constitutional system in which governmental authority is divided among the three branches, requiring cooperation and compromise in policymaking. |
| stakeholders | Individuals, groups, or organizations that have an interest in or are affected by government policy decisions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bills | Proposed legislation that is introduced in Congress for consideration and potential passage into law. |
| budget | Congress's annual financial plan that allocates funds for mandatory and discretionary spending programs. |
| budget deficit | The shortfall that occurs when government spending exceeds tax revenues. |
| calendar assignment | The process of scheduling bills for consideration and debate in a legislative chamber. |
| cloture | A Senate procedure that ends debate and forces a vote on a bill, typically requiring a supermajority of senators. |
| Committee of the Whole | A procedural mechanism in the House that allows all members to participate in debate on a bill to expedite the legislative process. |
| committees | Specialized groups of legislators within Congress that conduct hearings, debate, and review bills before they are considered by the full chamber. |
| conference committee | A joint committee formed to reconcile differences between versions of a bill passed by both chambers of Congress. |
| discharge petition | A procedure that allows individual House members to bring a bill to the floor for debate without committee approval. |
| discretionary spending | Government spending approved annually by Congress for programs such as defense, education, and infrastructure. |
| entitlement programs | Government benefit programs that provide payments to individuals who meet specified eligibility requirements, such as Social Security and Medicare. |
| filibuster | A Senate tactic in which a senator prolongs debate to delay or prevent a vote on a bill. |
| hold | A Senate procedure that allows a senator to request a delay or prevention of a bill from reaching the floor for a vote. |
| logrolling | The practice of legislators exchanging political favors, such as trading votes, to gain support for legislation. |
| majority political party | The political party with the most members in a legislative chamber, which determines committee leadership. |
| mandatory spending | Government spending required by law for entitlement programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid. |
| markup | The process by which a committee revises and adds amendments to a bill before recommending it to the full chamber. |
| policymaking process | The series of steps and procedures through which Congress develops, debates, and enacts legislation into law. |
| pork-barrel legislation | Funding for local projects included in larger appropriation bills, often used to benefit a legislator's district. |
| revenue bills | Legislation that raises taxes or generates government income, which must originate in the House of Representatives. |
| rider amendments | Amendments added to bills that are often unrelated to the original bill's purpose. |
| Rules Committee | The House committee that establishes the rules and procedures for debate on bills in the House chamber. |
| Speaker | The elected leader of the House of Representatives who presides over legislative work and is chosen by a majority of House members. |
| unanimous consent | A Senate procedure for bringing bills to the floor for consideration when all senators agree to proceed without objection. |
| whips | Party leaders in Congress responsible for ensuring party members are present for votes and supporting party positions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| delegate | A representative role conception in which a member of Congress sees themselves as an agent of those who elected them and votes based on constituent interests. |
| divided government | A situation in which one party controls the presidency and the other party controls at least one of the chambers of Congress. |
| gerrymandering | The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one political party or group. |
| gridlock | A situation in which no congressional action on legislation can be taken due to a lack of consensus among members. |
| lame duck president | A president in their final term or final period of office who has limited political power and influence. |
| partisan voting | When members of Congress vote based on their political party affiliation rather than other considerations. |
| polarization | A situation in which political attitudes move toward ideological extremes, creating greater distance between opposing viewpoints. |
| politico | A representative role conception that combines elements of both the trustee and delegate approaches to voting. |
| redistricting | The process of redrawing electoral district boundaries, typically following the decennial census. |
| trustee | A representative role conception in which a member of Congress votes based on their own knowledge and judgment rather than constituent preferences. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bargaining and persuasion | Informal powers through which the president negotiates with Congress and uses political influence to secure legislative action. |
| Cabinet | The group of department heads and other officials who advise the president and help implement the policy agenda. |
| commander-in-chief | The formal power of the president to serve as the supreme military authority and direct military operations. |
| executive agreements | Informal agreements between the president and foreign nations that do not require Senate ratification and represent an informal foreign policy power. |
| Executive Office of the President | The administrative organization that supports the president in implementing policy and managing the federal government. |
| executive orders | Formal directives issued by the president to manage the federal government and implement policy, derived from constitutional executive power or delegated congressional authority. |
| formal powers | Constitutional or statutory powers explicitly granted to the president by law or the Constitution. |
| informal powers | Powers exercised by the president that are not explicitly granted by the Constitution or law, based on custom, persuasion, or political influence. |
| pocket veto | A formal presidential power to reject legislation by not signing it when Congress is not in session, which cannot be overridden by Congress. |
| policy agenda | A set of policy priorities and goals that a president seeks to accomplish during their term in office. |
| signing statements | Informal written statements issued by the president when signing legislation to communicate their interpretation of the law to Congress and the public. |
| treaties | Formal agreements between the United States and foreign nations that require Senate ratification and represent a formal presidential foreign policy power. |
| veto | The president's formal power to reject legislation passed by Congress, which can be overridden by a 2/3 vote in both chambers. |
| Vice President | The second-ranking executive official who supports the president in accomplishing the policy agenda. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ambassadors | Diplomatic representatives appointed by the president to represent the United States in foreign countries, requiring Senate confirmation. |
| appointment powers | The president's authority to select and nominate individuals to fill positions in the executive and judicial branches, subject to Senate confirmation. |
| Cabinet members | Heads of executive departments who advise the president and lead federal agencies, requiring Senate confirmation. |
| congressional agenda | The formal list of policies and legislation that Congress is considering at any given time. |
| Court of Appeals judges | Federal judges appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate to serve on appellate courts. |
| District Court judges | Federal judges appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate to serve on trial courts. |
| Executive Office of the President | The administrative organization that supports the president in implementing policy and managing the federal government. |
| executive orders | Formal directives issued by the president to manage the federal government and implement policy, derived from constitutional executive power or delegated congressional authority. |
| Judicial appointments | The president's power to nominate judges to federal courts, which provides long-lasting influence through life-tenured positions. |
| president's agenda | The set of policy priorities and goals that the president seeks to accomplish during their administration. |
| Senate confirmation | The process by which the Senate must approve presidential appointments to certain positions, serving as a check on presidential power. |
| Supreme Court Justices | Members of the highest federal court appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, serving life tenure. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| expansion of presidential power | The historical trend of presidents interpreting and exercising their powers more broadly than originally intended, leading to increased executive authority. |
| Federalist No. 70 | A Federalist Paper written by Alexander Hamilton that argues for a strong, unitary executive as necessary for national defense, law enforcement, property protection, and liberty. |
| formal powers | Constitutional or statutory powers explicitly granted to the president by law or the Constitution. |
| informal powers | Powers exercised by the president that are not explicitly granted by the Constitution or law, based on custom, persuasion, or political influence. |
| presidential term limits | Constitutional restrictions on the number of terms a president may serve, established by the Twenty-Second Amendment to prevent excessive accumulation of executive power. |
| Twenty-Second Amendment | A constitutional amendment that established a two-term limit for the presidency, enacted in response to concerns about the expansion of presidential power. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agenda setting | The media's power to influence which political issues and events the public considers important by deciding what to cover and how prominently to feature it. |
| bully pulpit | The president's platform and ability to use the office and media attention to influence public opinion and promote policies. |
| communication technology | Tools and platforms used by the president to communicate with the public, including modern media such as social media and broadcast television. |
| national constituency | The entire population of voters and citizens that a president represents and communicates with. |
| social media | Digital platforms that allow users to create, share, and distribute political information and commentary directly to large audiences. |
| State of the Union | An annual nationally broadcast address delivered by the president to Congress and the nation to report on the state of the country and set the legislative agenda. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Article III | The section of the U.S. Constitution that establishes the judicial branch and defines the structure and powers of the federal court system. |
| checks and balances | The system of constitutional provisions that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches, preventing any single branch from becoming too powerful. |
| Federalist No. 78 | An essay by Alexander Hamilton that explains and defends the independence of the judicial branch and its role in checking the power of other branches. |
| judicial independence | The principle that courts operate free from interference or pressure from the other branches of government. |
| judicial review | The power of the courts to examine laws and executive actions and declare them unconstitutional if they violate the Constitution. |
| separation of powers | The constitutional principle that divides the federal government into three branches—legislative, executive, and judicial—each with distinct powers and responsibilities. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| case precedent | A court decision or ruling that serves as an authoritative example or rule for future cases with similar facts and legal issues. |
| judicial decision making | The process by which judges and courts interpret law and reach decisions in cases brought before them. |
| stare decisis | The legal doctrine under which courts follow and uphold legal precedents when deciding cases with similar facts. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Amendments | Formal changes or additions to the Constitution. |
| Bill of Rights | The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution that protect individual civil liberties and rights. |
| civil liberties | Individual rights and freedoms protected from government interference, such as freedom of speech and religion. |
| Constitution | The supreme law of the United States that establishes the framework of the federal government and defines the relationship between the national government and the states, and between the government and the people. |
| individual liberties | Fundamental freedoms and rights of citizens that are protected from government interference, including freedoms of speech, religion, and assembly. |
| liberties | Fundamental freedoms and rights protected from government interference. |
| rights | Entitlements and protections guaranteed to individuals by the Constitution. |
| Supreme Court interpretation | The process by which courts analyze and apply constitutional provisions and laws to specific cases, continuously shaping the meaning and application of constitutional protections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civil rights | Legal and constitutional protections that guarantee equal treatment and freedoms for all individuals, regardless of race, ethnicity, or other characteristics. |
| Due Process Clause | Constitutional provision in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments prohibiting the government from infringing on a person's life, liberty, or property without due process of law. |
| Equal Protection Clause | The part of the Fourteenth Amendment that prohibits states from denying any person equal protection of the laws. |
| LGBTQ rights | Advocacy for equal protection and non-discrimination for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer individuals. |
| pro-choice movement | An advocacy movement that supports a woman's right to choose abortion and opposes legal restrictions on abortion access. |
| pro-life movement | An advocacy movement that opposes abortion and seeks legal restrictions on abortion access. |
| social movements | Broad-based organized efforts by groups seeking social or political change to affect society and policymaking. |
| Title II | A civil rights law that guarantees equal treatment in public accommodations regardless of race, color, religion, or national origin. |
| Title IX | A federal law that prohibits sex discrimination in education, including ensuring equal opportunities for women to participate in athletics. |
| Title VII | A civil rights law that prohibits employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Civil Rights Act of 1964 | Federal legislation that prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in public places, schools, and employment. |
| court rulings | Judicial decisions made by courts that interpret laws and establish legal precedents. |
| Equal Protection Clause | The part of the Fourteenth Amendment that prohibits states from denying any person equal protection of the laws. |
| Fourteenth Amendment | Constitutional amendment that includes the due process clause applying procedural protections to state governments. |
| race-based school segregation | The separation of students in schools based on racial classification. |
| social movements | Broad-based organized efforts by groups seeking social or political change to affect society and policymaking. |
| Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 | Federal law that prohibits sex discrimination in any education program or activity that receives federal financial assistance. |
| Voting Rights Act of 1965 | Federal legislation that prohibits racial discrimination in voting and authorized federal oversight of elections in certain jurisdictions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civil rights | Legal and constitutional protections that guarantee equal treatment and freedoms for all individuals, regardless of race, ethnicity, or other characteristics. |
| Equal Protection Clause | The part of the Fourteenth Amendment that prohibits states from denying any person equal protection of the laws. |
| Fourteenth Amendment | Constitutional amendment that includes the due process clause applying procedural protections to state governments. |
| majority rights | The interests and preferences of the larger portion of the population, which the Court must balance against the protection of minority rights. |
| majority-minority districting | The practice of drawing electoral district boundaries to ensure that minority groups constitute a majority of voters in a district, designed to increase minority representation. |
| minority rights | Constitutional and legal protections for groups that represent a smaller portion of the population, ensuring they are not subjected to discrimination by the majority. |
| segregation | The forced separation of racial groups in public facilities, schools, and accommodations. |
| separate but equal doctrine | A legal principle that allowed racial segregation as long as separate facilities were provided for different racial groups, later declared unconstitutional. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| affirmative action | Policies intended to address workplace and educational disparities related to race, ethnic origin, gender, disability, and age. |
| educational disparities | Inequalities or differences in educational opportunities, access, or outcomes based on protected characteristics such as race, ethnicity, gender, disability, or age. |
| Equal Protection Clause | The part of the Fourteenth Amendment that prohibits states from denying any person equal protection of the laws. |
| Fourteenth Amendment | Constitutional amendment that includes the due process clause applying procedural protections to state governments. |
| workplace disparities | Inequalities or differences in employment opportunities, treatment, or outcomes based on protected characteristics such as race, ethnicity, gender, disability, or age. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| establishment clause | The First Amendment provision that prohibits Congress from making any law respecting an establishment of religion. |
| First Amendment | The constitutional amendment that protects fundamental freedoms including religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition. |
| free exercise clause | The First Amendment provision that protects an individual's right to practice religion freely without government interference. |
| religious liberty | The fundamental right of individuals to practice their religion and hold religious beliefs without government restriction or coercion. |
| Supreme Court interpretation | The process by which courts analyze and apply constitutional provisions and laws to specific cases, continuously shaping the meaning and application of constitutional protections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| clear and present danger | A legal standard for determining when speech can be restricted because it poses an immediate threat to public safety or national security. |
| defamation | Language or communication that harms the reputation of another person. |
| libel | Written communication that defames or harms the reputation of another person. |
| obscene communication | Speech or material that is sexually explicit or offensive in nature and may be subject to First Amendment limitations. |
| slander | Oral or spoken communication that defames or harms the reputation of another person. |
| symbolic speech | Nonverbal action or conduct that communicates an idea or belief and is protected as a form of expression under the First Amendment. |
| time, place, and manner regulations | Government restrictions on speech that regulate when, where, or how speech can occur, such as limits on event timing, location, or noise levels. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| First Amendment | The constitutional amendment that protects fundamental freedoms including religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition. |
| freedom of the press | The First Amendment right protecting the media's ability to publish information and express opinions without government censorship or interference. |
| individual liberty | The fundamental right of individuals to make personal choices and act freely within constitutional limits. |
| prior restraint | Government censorship or prohibition of speech or publication before it occurs, which the Supreme Court has held to be unconstitutional in most cases. |
| Supreme Court interpretation | The process by which courts analyze and apply constitutional provisions and laws to specific cases, continuously shaping the meaning and application of constitutional protections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| individual liberty | The fundamental right of individuals to make personal choices and act freely within constitutional limits. |
| right to bear arms | The constitutional right protected by the Second Amendment to possess and carry firearms. |
| Second Amendment | The constitutional amendment protecting the right of individuals to keep and bear arms. |
| Supreme Court interpretation | The process by which courts analyze and apply constitutional provisions and laws to specific cases, continuously shaping the meaning and application of constitutional protections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cruel and unusual punishment | Punishment that is excessive, barbaric, or disproportionate to the offense, prohibited by the Eighth Amendment. |
| death penalty | The legal punishment of execution imposed by a court for the most serious crimes. |
| digital metadata | Information about digital communications and activities, such as phone records, email headers, and location data, collected by government agencies. |
| Eighth Amendment | The constitutional amendment that prohibits cruel and unusual punishment. |
| Fourth Amendment | The constitutional amendment protecting individuals against unreasonable searches and seizures by the government. |
| government regulation of firearms | Laws and policies enacted by government to control the manufacture, sale, possession, and use of guns. |
| individual liberty | The fundamental right of individuals to make personal choices and act freely within constitutional limits. |
| individual rights | Fundamental freedoms and protections guaranteed to individuals by the Constitution and Bill of Rights. |
| public order | The state of peace and stability maintained by government through law enforcement and regulation. |
| public safety | The protection of the general population from harm, danger, or criminal activity through government action and law enforcement. |
| Second Amendment | The constitutional amendment protecting the right of individuals to keep and bear arms. |
| Supreme Court | The highest court in the United States federal judiciary, responsible for interpreting the Constitution and reviewing lower court decisions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Bill of Rights | The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution that protect individual civil liberties and rights. |
| civil liberties | Individual rights and freedoms protected from government interference, such as freedom of speech and religion. |
| Due Process Clause | Constitutional provision in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments prohibiting the government from infringing on a person's life, liberty, or property without due process of law. |
| Fourteenth Amendment | Constitutional amendment that includes the due process clause applying procedural protections to state governments. |
| selective incorporation | The doctrine by which select protections of the Bill of Rights are applied to the states through the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. |
| state regulation | Laws and rules established by individual states to govern conduct within their jurisdiction. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Bill of Rights | The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution that protect individual civil liberties and rights. |
| bulk collection of telecommunication metadata | Large-scale government gathering of communication records, regulated by the Patriot Act and USA Freedom Act. |
| cell phone data | Personal information stored on mobile devices protected from warrantless searches under Fourth Amendment rights. |
| Due Process Clause | Constitutional provision in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments prohibiting the government from infringing on a person's life, liberty, or property without due process of law. |
| exclusionary rule | Supreme Court doctrine that evidence illegally obtained in violation of Fourth Amendment rights cannot be used in criminal prosecution. |
| Fifth Amendment | Constitutional amendment that includes the due process clause limiting the national government's power to infringe on individual rights. |
| Fourteenth Amendment | Constitutional amendment that includes the due process clause applying procedural protections to state governments. |
| Fourth Amendment | The constitutional amendment protecting individuals against unreasonable searches and seizures by the government. |
| impartial jury | Constitutional requirement that a jury deciding a criminal case must be fair and unbiased. |
| Miranda rule | Supreme Court-established requirement that law enforcement must inform accused persons of certain procedural protections from the Fifth and Sixth Amendments before interrogation. |
| procedural due process | Constitutional requirement that government officials use fair, non-arbitrary methods when making decisions that affect constitutionally protected rights. |
| public safety exception | Legal doctrine allowing law enforcement to conduct unwarned interrogation in emergency situations, with the evidence admissible in court. |
| right to legal counsel | Constitutional protection guaranteeing an accused person the right to have an attorney represent them in criminal proceedings. |
| Riley v. California | 2014 Supreme Court case establishing that law enforcement cannot search cell phone data without a warrant. |
| Sixth Amendment | Constitutional amendment guaranteeing procedural protections to the accused, including the right to counsel and a speedy trial. |
| speedy and public trial | Constitutional right of the accused to have their criminal case heard quickly and openly before the public. |
| unreasonable searches and seizures | Government actions that violate the Fourth Amendment by searching or seizing a person's property without proper legal justification. |
| warrantless searches | Searches conducted by law enforcement without obtaining a warrant, which are generally prohibited under the Fourth Amendment. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Board of Education of Independent School District No. 92 of Pottawatomie County v. Earls | A 2008 Supreme Court case illustrating the scope and limitations of substantive due process and privacy rights. |
| Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization | A 2022 Supreme Court case that overturned Roe v. Wade and held that the Constitution does not confer a right to abortion. |
| Due Process Clause | Constitutional provision in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments prohibiting the government from infringing on a person's life, liberty, or property without due process of law. |
| Griswold v. Connecticut | A 1965 Supreme Court case that established the constitutional right to privacy through substantive due process interpretation of the due process clause. |
| Ninth Amendment | The constitutional amendment stating that individuals retain rights beyond those explicitly listed in the first eight amendments. |
| Pierce v. Society of Sisters | A 1925 Supreme Court case illustrating the application of substantive due process and privacy rights. |
| right to privacy | A constitutionally protected right, recognized through substantive due process, that shields individuals from government intrusion into personal decisions and intimate matters. |
| Roe v. Wade | A 1973 Supreme Court case that extended the right to privacy to abortion through substantive due process. |
| substantive due process | A constitutional principle that protects individuals from arbitrary government actions that infringe upon fundamental rights, even when proper legal procedures are followed. |
| unenumerated rights | Constitutional rights that are not explicitly listed in the Bill of Rights but are recognized by the Supreme Court as protected by the Constitution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| conservative ideology | A political ideology that generally favors less national government involvement in addressing social issues, with more responsibility left to state governments. |
| individual liberty | The fundamental right of individuals to make personal choices and act freely within constitutional limits. |
| liberal ideology | A political ideology that generally favors more national government involvement in addressing social issues such as education and public health. |
| libertarian ideology | A political ideology that generally favors minimal government involvement at both national and state levels, except to protect private property and individual liberty. |
| national government involvement | The extent to which the federal government takes responsibility for addressing social issues and policy matters. |
| policy trends | Patterns in government decisions and laws that reflect shifts in political ideology and priorities. |
| political ideology | A comprehensive set of beliefs and values about the proper role of government and the organization of society. |
| private property | Individually or privately owned possessions and assets that libertarian ideology seeks to protect from government interference. |
| same-sex marriage | The legal union of two people of the same gender, recognized by government as a valid marriage. |
| school vouchers | Government-funded programs that allow parents to use public money to pay for private school tuition. |
| social issues | Policy matters affecting society such as education, healthcare, marriage, and reproductive rights. |
| state governments | The governments of individual states that retain powers not delegated to the federal government under the Constitution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| core values | Fundamental beliefs held by U.S. citizens that shape their attitudes about government and their relationships with one another. |
| equality of opportunity | A core American value asserting that all people are given an equal chance to compete. |
| free enterprise | A core American value in which the market determines prices, products, and services. |
| individualism | A core American value emphasizing that each person has the ability to shape their life and destiny through the choices they make. |
| rule of law | A core American value establishing that every person, even those in power, must follow and is accountable to the same laws that govern all. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civic organizations | Groups and institutions focused on community service and civic participation that contribute to political socialization. |
| democratic ideals | Core principles and values fundamental to democracy, such as popular sovereignty, equality, and individual rights. |
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and interdependence among countries, leading to the exchange of ideas, values, and cultural influences. |
| political attitudes | Individual beliefs and opinions about specific political issues, leaders, or policies. |
| political culture | The shared attitudes, beliefs, and values of citizens that shape how they view government, politics, and public policy. |
| political socialization | The process by which individuals develop political beliefs, values, opinions, and behaviors through various social influences. |
| religious organizations | Faith-based institutions that serve as agents of political socialization by influencing members' values and political perspectives. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| generational effects | Shared political and social experiences common to people born during the same time period that shape their political ideology. |
| life cycle effects | Changes in political ideology that occur as individuals progress through different life stages and encounter new experiences. |
| political ideology | A comprehensive set of beliefs and values about the proper role of government and the organization of society. |
| social factors | Elements of society and social experience that influence the development of political beliefs and attitudes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| political attitudes | Individual beliefs and opinions about specific political issues, leaders, or policies. |
| political events | Significant occurrences or developments in the political sphere that can shape how individuals view and understand politics. |
| political ideology | A comprehensive set of beliefs and values about the proper role of government and the organization of society. |
| political socialization | The process by which individuals develop political beliefs, values, opinions, and behaviors through various social influences. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| accurate reporting | The clear and honest presentation of poll data and conclusions that are directly supported by the data collected. |
| benchmark poll | A type of scientific poll that establishes baseline views and initial measurements of a candidate's support at the beginning of a campaign. |
| exit poll | A type of scientific poll that collects data from voters immediately after they vote to determine why they voted the way they did. |
| margin of error | A statistical measure that indicates the range of uncertainty in poll results due to sampling variation. |
| neutral framing | The practice of wording poll questions in a specific and unbiased manner to avoid influencing respondent answers. |
| opinion poll | A type of scientific poll that measures public opinion on various political issues and topics. |
| polling methodology | The systematic procedures and techniques used to conduct scientific polls, including sampling methods, question design, and data reporting. |
| sampling methods | The techniques used to select a representative subset of the population for a poll to ensure accurate results. |
| scientific polling | A systematic method of collecting public opinion data using rigorous sampling techniques and statistical analysis to measure attitudes on political topics. |
| tracking poll | A type of scientific poll that follows and measures how public views of a candidate change over the course of a campaign. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| credibility | The degree to which public opinion data and claims based on it are trustworthy and worthy of belief. |
| public opinion data | Information collected through surveys and polls that reflects the attitudes, beliefs, and preferences of a population on political issues. |
| reliability | The consistency and dependability of public opinion data in producing similar results when measured repeatedly under similar conditions. |
| scientific polling | A systematic method of collecting public opinion data using rigorous sampling techniques and statistical analysis to measure attitudes on political topics. |
| veracity | The accuracy and truthfulness of public opinion data in reflecting genuine attitudes and preferences of respondents. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| conservative ideology | A political ideology that generally favors less national government involvement in addressing social issues, with more responsibility left to state governments. |
| Democratic Party platforms | The official positions and policy proposals adopted by the Democratic Party. |
| liberal ideology | A political ideology that generally favors more national government involvement in addressing social issues such as education and public health. |
| policy debates | Discussions and disagreements about specific government policies and their implementation. |
| political ideology | A comprehensive set of beliefs and values about the proper role of government and the organization of society. |
| Republican Party platforms | The official positions and policy proposals adopted by the Republican Party. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| assimilation | The process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits and values of the dominant society. |
| democratic ideals | Core principles and values fundamental to democracy, such as popular sovereignty, equality, and individual rights. |
| individual liberty | The fundamental right of individuals to make personal choices and act freely within constitutional limits. |
| multiculturalism | A policy approach that recognizes and values the cultural diversity of a society's different groups. |
| political culture | The shared attitudes, beliefs, and values of citizens that shape how they view government, politics, and public policy. |
| public policy | Official government decisions and actions designed to address public issues and achieve specific goals. |
| stability and order | The government's role in maintaining social peace, security, and predictable conditions for society. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| conservative ideology | A political ideology that generally favors less national government involvement in addressing social issues, with more responsibility left to state governments. |
| economic conditions | The overall state of an economy, including factors such as employment, inflation, growth, and interest rates. |
| Federal Reserve | The independent central banking system of the United States responsible for implementing monetary policy and regulating financial institutions. |
| fiscal policy | Actions taken by Congress and the president, such as taxation and spending decisions, to influence economic conditions. |
| interest rates | The percentage charged on borrowed money; a key tool used by the Federal Reserve to influence economic activity. |
| Keynesian economics | An economic approach that emphasizes government intervention through fiscal policy to manage economic cycles and achieve full employment. |
| liberal ideology | A political ideology that generally favors more national government involvement in addressing social issues such as education and public health. |
| libertarian ideology | A political ideology that generally favors minimal government involvement at both national and state levels, except to protect private property and individual liberty. |
| marketplace regulation | Government policies and rules that control or influence economic activity and business practices in the market. |
| maximum employment | One of the Federal Reserve's primary goals, referring to the lowest sustainable level of unemployment in the economy. |
| monetary policy | Actions taken by the Federal Reserve to influence interest rates and affect broader economic conditions. |
| political ideology | A comprehensive set of beliefs and values about the proper role of government and the organization of society. |
| price stability | One of the Federal Reserve's primary goals, referring to maintaining a low and stable rate of inflation. |
| property rights | Legal protections that give individuals and businesses ownership and control over their possessions and assets. |
| supply-side economics | An economic approach that emphasizes reducing taxes and regulations to stimulate production and economic growth. |
| voluntary trade | Economic exchanges between parties that occur freely without government coercion or mandate. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| campaign costs | The total expenses incurred by a campaign, including advertising, staff, and operational expenses. |
| campaign organizations | Structured groups and teams that manage and coordinate activities for a political candidate's election campaign. |
| campaign strategies | Planned approaches and tactics used by campaigns to influence voters and achieve electoral success. |
| canvassing | A campaign tactic involving direct contact with voters, typically door-to-door, to discuss issues and encourage support. |
| election cycles | The period of time from the beginning of campaign activities through the election day and its conclusion. |
| fundraising | The process of collecting money from donors and supporters to finance political campaigns and party operations. |
| phone banking | A campaign tactic in which volunteers make telephone calls to voters to promote a candidate or encourage voter participation. |
| professional consultants | Specialized experts hired by campaigns to provide advice on strategy, messaging, polling, and other aspects of modern elections. |
| social media | Digital platforms that allow users to create, share, and distribute political information and commentary directly to large audiences. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| 14th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including formerly enslaved people. |
| 15th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that granted African American men the right to vote. |
| 17th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that changed the election of Senators from selection by state legislatures to direct election by the people. |
| 19th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that granted women the right to vote. |
| 24th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that eliminated poll taxes as a requirement for voting. |
| 26th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that lowered the voting age to 18 years old. |
| citizenship | Legal status granted to persons born or naturalized in the U.S., which carries rights including the right to vote. |
| poll taxes | A fee or tax that voters were required to pay in order to cast a ballot, which served as a structural barrier to voting. |
| prospective voting | A model of voting behavior in which individuals vote based on their predictions and expectations of how a party or candidate will perform in the future. |
| rational choice voting | A model of voting behavior in which individuals base their voting decisions on what they perceive to be in their own best interest. |
| retrospective voting | A model of voting behavior in which individuals decide whether to reelect the party or candidate in power based on their recent performance and record. |
| straight ticket voting | A voting behavior in which individuals vote for all candidates from a single political party on a ballot. |
| voting rights protections | Legal safeguards established in the Constitution and legislation that guarantee citizens' ability to participate in elections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| attack ads | Political advertisements that criticize or attack an opponent rather than promote a candidate's own positions. |
| Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 | Federal legislation designed to regulate campaign finance by banning soft money contributions and requiring candidates to approve their own advertisements. |
| campaign contributions | Money donated by individuals, organizations, and political parties to support candidates and political campaigns. |
| campaign finance | The money raised and spent by candidates, political parties, and interest groups to support political campaigns and elections. |
| First Amendment | The constitutional amendment that protects fundamental freedoms including religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition. |
| political action committees (PACs) | Organizations that raise and spend money to support or oppose political candidates and causes, subject to federal contribution limits. |
| political parties | Organizations that seek to influence government policy and elect candidates to office by mobilizing voters around shared ideological positions. |
| protected speech | Expression and communication that is safeguarded by the First Amendment and cannot be restricted by the government. |
| soft money | Unregulated campaign contributions to political parties that are not subject to federal contribution limits, often used for party-building activities. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agenda setting | The media's power to influence which political issues and events the public considers important by deciding what to cover and how prominently to feature it. |
| election coverage | Media reporting on candidates, campaigns, and electoral processes during political elections. |
| horse race | Media coverage of elections that emphasizes competition and popularity polls rather than substantive discussion of candidates' qualifications and policy platforms. |
| investigative journalism | In-depth reporting by journalists that uncovers and exposes political wrongdoing, corruption, or matters of public interest. |
| linkage institution | An organization or mechanism that connects citizens to the political system and influences the political process, such as the media. |
| new communication technologies | Digital platforms and tools that enable the distribution and consumption of political information outside traditional media channels. |
| political commentary | Analysis and opinion-based discussion of political events, policies, and issues presented through media outlets. |
| polling results | Data collected from surveys measuring public opinion on political candidates, issues, and levels of trust in government. |
| social media | Digital platforms that allow users to create, share, and distribute political information and commentary directly to large audiences. |
| traditional news media | Established news outlets such as newspapers, television, and radio that have historically been the primary sources of political information for citizens. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| consumer-driven media outlets | Media organizations that prioritize audience preferences and market demand in determining what content to produce and distribute. |
| credibility of news sources | The trustworthiness and reliability of media outlets in accurately and fairly reporting information and events. |
| emerging technologies | New communication platforms and tools that create additional channels for distributing political information and news content. |
| ideologically oriented programming | Media content deliberately designed to appeal to and reinforce the political beliefs and values of a specific audience segment. |
| media bias | The perceived or actual slant in news coverage and analysis based on the ideological preferences of media outlets or journalists. |
| media ownership | The concentration of control over media outlets and communications platforms by specific corporations, individuals, or entities. |
| partisan news sites | Media outlets that explicitly favor or promote the views and interests of a particular political party or ideology. |
| political institutions | The formal structures and organizations through which political power is exercised, including government branches, legislatures, and regulatory bodies. |
| political knowledge | Citizens' understanding of political processes, institutions, issues, and current events necessary for informed participation in democracy. |
| political participation | Citizen engagement in the political process, including voting, activism, and other forms of involvement in democratic governance. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absentee voting | A method of voting that allows individuals to cast ballots before election day without being physically present at the polling place. |
| demographic characteristics | Statistical characteristics of populations, such as age, gender, race, ethnicity, and religious affiliation, that can influence voter behavior and turnout. |
| early voting | A voting method that allows eligible voters to cast their ballots before the official election day. |
| ideological orientation | A voter's position on the political spectrum, ranging from liberal to conservative, which shapes their policy preferences and voting decisions. |
| midterm elections | Elections held every two years between presidential elections in which voters elect members of Congress and other state and local officials, typically generating lower voter turnout than presidential elections. |
| party identification | A voter's psychological attachment to and loyalty to a political party, which influences voting behavior and political choices. |
| political efficacy | The belief that an individual's participation in the political process will make a difference in election outcomes. |
| presidential elections | National elections held every four years in which voters choose the President and Vice President of the United States, typically generating higher voter turnout than midterm elections. |
| structural barriers | Obstacles in the voting process, such as polling hours, availability of absentee ballots, and voter ID requirements, that can affect voter turnout. |
| Voter ID laws | State regulations requiring voters to present identification documents at polling places to verify their eligibility to vote. |
| voter registration laws | State regulations that establish procedures and requirements for individuals to register to vote, including in-person, online, or automatic registration options. |
| voting by mail | A voting method in which ballots are sent to voters by mail, allowing them to vote from home and return ballots by mail or in person. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| campaign management | The coordination of activities and resources to promote a candidate's election, including strategy, messaging, and voter outreach. |
| candidate recruitment | The process by which political parties identify, evaluate, and encourage individuals to run for elected office. |
| committee systems | The organizational structure of legislative committees led by party members who manage legislative priorities and assignments. |
| elections | Formal processes through which citizens select candidates for public office. |
| electorate | The body of voters eligible to participate in elections. |
| fundraising | The process of collecting money from donors and supporters to finance political campaigns and party operations. |
| interest groups | Organizations formed by individuals with shared interests or concerns that seek to influence public policy outcomes. |
| linkage institutions | Channels through which individuals communicate their preferences and interests to policymakers. |
| media | Channels of communication that inform the public about political issues and candidates. |
| media strategy | The planned use of television, radio, digital, and print media to communicate a candidate's or party's message to voters. |
| mobilization | The process of organizing and activating voters to participate in the political process and support party candidates. |
| party leadership | The elected or appointed officials who direct party operations and strategy within legislative bodies. |
| party platforms | The set of principles, policies, and positions that a political party officially adopts and promotes. |
| political parties | Organizations that seek to influence government policy and elect candidates to office by mobilizing voters around shared ideological positions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| campaign finance law | Legislation that regulates the raising and spending of money in political campaigns, influencing how parties structure and operate. |
| candidate-centered campaigns | Electoral campaigns that focus on the personal characteristics, qualities, and appeal of individual candidates rather than on party platforms or party identity. |
| critical elections | Elections in which there is a significant realignment of political party support among voters, often marking a shift in which groups support which parties. |
| demographic coalitions | Groups of voters defined by shared characteristics such as age, race, ethnicity, income, or education that parties seek to attract and mobilize. |
| mobilization | The process of organizing and activating voters to participate in the political process and support party candidates. |
| political messaging | The communication strategies and content that political parties develop and disseminate to convey their positions and appeal to voters. |
| realignment | A significant and lasting shift in which demographic groups support which political parties, often occurring during critical elections. |
| voter data management | The collection, analysis, and use of voter information to identify, target, and mobilize specific groups of voters for political campaigns. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| independent candidate | A candidate who runs for office without affiliation to a major political party. |
| party platforms | The set of principles, policies, and positions that a political party officially adopts and promotes. |
| proportional systems | Electoral systems in which political parties receive representation proportional to the number of votes they receive. |
| structural barriers | Obstacles in the voting process, such as polling hours, availability of absentee ballots, and voter ID requirements, that can affect voter turnout. |
| third-party | A political party other than the two major parties (Democrats and Republicans) in the U.S. political system. |
| two-party system | A political system dominated by two major political parties that compete for power. |
| winner-take-all voting | An electoral allocation method where the candidate who wins the most votes in a state receives all of that state's electoral votes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| access | The ability of interest groups to gain direct contact and communication with important policymakers and government officials. |
| amicus curiae brief | A written document submitted to a court by a 'friend of the court' (typically an interest group) to provide additional information for judicial consideration in a case. |
| elections | Formal processes through which citizens select candidates for public office. |
| financial reserves | Money accumulated by interest groups that can be used to fund campaigns, lobbying efforts, and political activities. |
| free riders | Individuals who benefit from the work and advocacy of an interest group without contributing financially or materially to the group. |
| influence | The ability of interest groups to affect government decisions, elections, and policymaking processes. |
| interest groups | Organizations formed by individuals with shared interests or concerns that seek to influence public policy outcomes. |
| iron triangles | A three-way relationship between interest groups, government agencies, and legislative committees that work together to influence policy in a specific area. |
| issue networks | Loose coalitions of interest groups, government officials, and other stakeholders who share interest in a particular policy issue and work across party lines. |
| lobbying | The practice of seeking to influence legislators and government officials on specific policy issues. |
| mobilize | The ability of interest groups to organize and activate their members to take political action. |
| policymaking | The process of developing and implementing government policies; a primary area where interest groups seek to exert influence. |
| resources | Assets possessed by interest groups, including membership size, financial reserves, and access to policymakers, that enable them to influence the political process. |
| selective benefits | Goods and services provided exclusively to members of an interest group to encourage membership and overcome the free rider problem. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agencies | Federal organizations responsible for implementing and enforcing laws and policies in specific areas of government responsibility. |
| federal budget process | The governmental procedure through which competing political actors influence the allocation of federal spending and revenues. |
| ideological movements | Organized efforts by groups of people united by shared political beliefs or values to influence society and policy outcomes. |
| interest groups | Organizations formed by individuals with shared interests or concerns that seek to influence public policy outcomes. |
| professional organizations | Groups representing members of a specific profession or occupation that work to influence policies affecting their field. |
| protest movements | Organized collective actions by groups expressing opposition to government policies or societal conditions to influence policymaking. |
| realignment | A significant and lasting shift in which demographic groups support which political parties, often occurring during critical elections. |
| single-issue groups | Political organizations formed around one specific policy concern with the goal of influencing policymaking on that particular issue. |
| social movements | Broad-based organized efforts by groups seeking social or political change to affect society and policymaking. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| caucus | A local meeting where party members gather to discuss candidates and select delegates to represent them at higher-level party conventions. |
| closed primary | A primary election in which only registered members of a political party are allowed to vote. |
| Electoral College | The system by which the president is elected through votes cast by electors from each state, rather than through a direct popular vote. |
| electors | Representatives from each state who cast votes in the Electoral College to determine the president. |
| general election | The election held to determine which candidates will hold public office, occurring in November in even-numbered years. |
| incumbency advantage | The electoral advantage held by current office holders due to factors such as name recognition, fundraising ability, and constituent service. |
| open primary | A primary election in which voters do not need to be registered members of a political party to participate. |
| party convention | A formal gathering of party delegates to nominate the party's presidential candidate and establish the party platform. |
| popular vote | The total number of votes cast by individual voters in a presidential election nationwide. |
| winner-take-all voting | An electoral allocation method where the candidate who wins the most votes in a state receives all of that state's electoral votes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| caucus | A local meeting where party members gather to discuss candidates and select delegates to represent them at higher-level party conventions. |
| closed primary | A primary election in which only registered members of a political party are allowed to vote. |
| general election | The election held to determine which candidates will hold public office, occurring in November in even-numbered years. |
| incumbency advantage | The electoral advantage held by current office holders due to factors such as name recognition, fundraising ability, and constituent service. |
| midterm elections | Elections held every two years between presidential elections in which voters elect members of Congress and other state and local officials, typically generating lower voter turnout than presidential elections. |
| open primary | A primary election in which voters do not need to be registered members of a political party to participate. |
| presidential elections | National elections held every four years in which voters choose the President and Vice President of the United States, typically generating higher voter turnout than midterm elections. |
#
A