| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| adoption studies | A research method that compares adopted children to their biological and adoptive parents to determine the effects of genes and environment on behavior and mental processes. |
| environment | External factors that one experiences, such as family interactions or education; also referred to as 'nurture.' |
| eugenics | A discriminatory application of evolutionary principles that seeks to improve human populations through selective breeding or genetic manipulation. |
| evolutionary perspective | A theoretical approach that explores how natural selection affects the expression of behavior and mental processes to increase survival and reproductive success. |
| family studies | A research method that examines similarities in traits and behaviors among family members to determine the effects of heredity and environment. |
| heredity | Genetic or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental traits and processes; also referred to as 'nature.' |
| natural selection | The process by which traits that increase survival and reproductive success become more common in a population over time. |
| twin studies | A research method that compares similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to determine the effects of genes on behavior and mental processes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| autonomic nervous system | The division of the peripheral nervous system that governs involuntary processes such as heart rate and digestion. |
| brain | The central organ of the central nervous system that processes information and controls body functions. |
| central nervous system | The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord that processes information and coordinates responses. |
| parasympathetic nervous system | The division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the 'rest and digest' response that helps reduce anxiety and promote relaxation. |
| peripheral nervous system | The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body. |
| somatic nervous system | The division of the peripheral nervous system that governs voluntary processes and skeletal muscle control. |
| spinal cord | The bundle of nerves extending from the brain through the vertebral column that is part of the central nervous system. |
| sympathetic nervous system | The division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the 'fight or flight' response that contributes to feelings of anxiety. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| acetylcholine | A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory. |
| action potential | A rapid change in a neuron's membrane potential that allows it to transmit signals over long distances. |
| addiction | A compulsive pattern of psychoactive drug use that can create significant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is no longer consumed. |
| adrenaline | A hormone involved in the stress response, increasing heart rate and arousal. |
| agonists | Psychoactive drugs that bind to receptors and encourage neural firing by mimicking or enhancing neurotransmitter effects. |
| all-or-nothing principle | The rule that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all; there is no partial firing of an action potential. |
| antagonists | Psychoactive drugs that bind to receptors and discourage neural firing by blocking neurotransmitter effects. |
| central nervous system | The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord that processes information and coordinates responses. |
| depolarization | The process by which a neuron's membrane potential becomes less negative, moving toward or past zero, triggering an action potential. |
| depressants | Psychoactive drugs such as alcohol that typically decrease neural activity and slow down the central nervous system. |
| dopamine | A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, movement, and mood regulation. |
| endorphins | Neurotransmitters involved in pain relief and the experience of pleasure. |
| excitatory message | A neurotransmitter signal that makes an action potential more likely by depolarizing the receiving neuron. |
| GABA | An inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neural activity and promotes relaxation. |
| ghrelin | A hormone that increases appetite and signals hunger to the brain, primarily produced in the stomach. |
| glial cells | Cells in the nervous system that provide structure, insulation, communication, and waste transport to support neural function. |
| glutamate | An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory. |
| hallucinogens | Psychoactive drugs such as marijuana that typically cause distortions in perception and/or cognition. |
| hormone | A chemical messenger released into the bloodstream that affects behavior and mental processes similar to neurotransmitters. |
| inhibitory message | A neurotransmitter signal that makes an action potential less likely by hyperpolarizing the receiving neuron. |
| interneurons | Neurons in the central nervous system that connect sensory and motor neurons and process information between them. |
| leptin | A hormone that decreases appetite and signals satiety (fullness) to the brain, produced by fat cells. |
| melatonin | A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms. |
| motor neurons | Neurons that transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles to produce movement and behavior. |
| neural transmission | The process by which neurons communicate through the release and reception of neurotransmitters across synapses. |
| neurons | Neural cells that transmit information throughout the nervous system and are responsible for behavior and mental processes. |
| neurotransmitter | A chemical messenger released by neurons that transmits signals across synapses to affect the activity of other neurons or cells. |
| neurotransmitter function | The process by which neurotransmitters transmit signals between neurons and affect neural communication. |
| norepinephrine | A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, attention, and the stress response. |
| opioids | Psychoactive drugs such as heroin that typically act as pain relievers by affecting pain perception. |
| oxytocin | A hormone involved in social bonding, trust, and reproductive behaviors. |
| peripheral nervous system | The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body. |
| psychoactive drugs | Substances that alter brain chemistry and affect behavior, mental processes, and consciousness. |
| reflex arc | A neural pathway in the spinal cord that enables rapid, automatic responses to stimuli without requiring brain involvement. |
| refractory period | A period of time after an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire again, either absolutely (no new action potential possible) or relatively (only with stronger stimulation). |
| resting potential | The stable negative electrical charge of a neuron at rest, typically around -70 millivolts. |
| reuptake | The process by which neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic cleft and reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron. |
| reuptake inhibitors | Psychoactive drugs that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters back into the presynaptic cell, prolonging their effects. |
| sensory neurons | Neurons that transmit information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system in response to stimuli. |
| serotonin | A neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, sleep, and emotional processing. |
| stimulants | Psychoactive drugs such as caffeine and cocaine that typically increase neural activity and arousal. |
| substance P | A neurotransmitter involved in pain perception and transmission. |
| threshold | The minimum level of depolarization needed to trigger an action potential in a neuron. |
| tolerance | A state in which repeated use of a psychoactive drug requires increasing doses to achieve the same effect. |
| withdrawal symptoms | Negative physical and psychological effects that occur when a person stops using a psychoactive drug to which they are addicted. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| amygdala | A brain structure within the limbic system that processes emotions, particularly fear and emotional memory. |
| aphasia | A language disorder resulting from damage to brain areas responsible for speech production or comprehension. |
| association areas | Brain regions in the parietal lobes that process and organize sensory and cognitive information. |
| brain plasticity | The ability of the brain to rewire itself, modify existing connections, or create new connections throughout development to compensate for damage or support learning. |
| brain stem | The region of the brain that controls basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate. |
| brain's reward center | The brain region that processes reward and reinforcement, influencing learning, cognition, and emotional responses. |
| Broca's area | A region in the left hemisphere responsible for speech production. |
| cerebellum | A brain structure that controls coordination of muscle movement, balance, and procedural learning. |
| cerebral cortex | The outer layer of the brain divided into two hemispheres, containing the limbic system and lobes that process sensory information and control higher-order functions. |
| contralateral hemispheric organization | The brain's organization in which each hemisphere processes sensory information from the opposite side of the body. |
| corpus callosum | A bundle of nerve fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them. |
| EEG | Electroencephalography; a brain imaging technique that measures electrical activity of the brain. |
| fMRI | Functional magnetic resonance imaging; a brain imaging technique that measures blood flow to identify active brain regions. |
| frontal lobes | Brain lobes located just behind the forehead that control linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning, including the motor cortex. |
| hippocampus | A brain structure within the limbic system that is essential for forming and consolidating memories. |
| hypothalamus | A brain structure within the limbic system that regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, and other homeostatic functions. |
| lesioning | A surgical procedure that damages or removes a specific brain area to study its function. |
| limbic system | A group of brain structures including the thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, and amygdala that regulate emotion, memory, and motivation. |
| medulla | A structure within the brain stem that regulates vital functions including breathing and heart rate. |
| motor cortex | A region located at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls most types of skeletal movement. |
| occipital lobes | Brain lobes located at the rear of the cerebral cortex that process visual information. |
| parietal lobes | Brain lobes located near the back crown of the cerebral cortex that contain association areas for processing and organizing information and the somatosensory cortex for touch sensitivity. |
| pituitary gland | An endocrine gland within the limbic system that releases hormones controlling growth, metabolism, and other bodily functions. |
| prefrontal cortex | A region of the frontal lobes responsible for executive functioning, decision-making, and higher-order thinking. |
| reticular activating system | A network of neurons in the brain that controls voluntary movement, eye movement, and influences learning, cognition, and emotion. |
| somatosensory cortex | A region in the parietal lobes that processes touch sensitivity and tactile information. |
| split brain research | Research conducted on patients with severed corpus callosums that reveals specialization of the left and right brain hemispheres. |
| temporal lobes | Brain lobes located on the sides of the cerebral cortex that process auditory and linguistic information. |
| thalamus | A brain structure that processes most sensory information before it reaches the cerebral cortex; the olfactory system bypasses this structure. |
| Wernicke's area | A region in the left hemisphere responsible for speech comprehension. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| activation-synthesis theory | A theory explaining dreams as the brain's attempt to synthesize and make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep. |
| circadian rhythm | A biological cycle that repeats approximately every 24 hours, regulating sleep-wake patterns and other physiological processes. |
| consciousness | The varying levels of awareness of thoughts, feelings, behavior, and events in an individual's internal and external worlds. |
| consolidation theory | A theory suggesting that sleep serves to organize and consolidate memories from daily experiences into long-term storage. |
| EEG patterns | Electrical brain wave recordings used to identify and distinguish the different stages of sleep. |
| hypnagogic sensations | Sensory experiences that occur as an individual enters Stage 1 sleep, marking the transition from wakefulness to sleep. |
| insomnia | A sleep disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep. |
| jet lag | A disruption of the circadian rhythm caused by rapid travel across multiple time zones. |
| memory consolidation | The process by which encoded information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory. |
| narcolepsy | A sleep disorder characterized by sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep during wakefulness. |
| NREM sleep | Non-rapid eye movement sleep occurring in Stages 1 through 3, characterized by specific EEG patterns and decreasing duration throughout the sleep cycle. |
| paradoxical sleep | A characteristic of REM sleep in which the brain produces waking-like electrical patterns while the body is at its most relaxed. |
| REM rebound | An increase in REM sleep that occurs after a period of REM sleep deprivation. |
| REM sleep | Rapid eye movement sleep characterized by brain waves similar to wakefulness, muscle relaxation, and where dreaming typically occurs. |
| REM sleep behavior disorder | A sleep disorder in which individuals act out their dreams during REM sleep due to loss of normal muscle paralysis. |
| restoration theory | A theory suggesting that sleep restores depleted physical and mental resources used throughout the day. |
| shift work | A disruption of the circadian rhythm caused by working at times that conflict with the body's natural sleep-wake cycle. |
| sleep apnea | A sleep disorder characterized by repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep. |
| sleep/wake cycle | The alternating pattern of sleep and wakefulness that occurs throughout a 24-hour period, affecting behavior and mental processes. |
| somnambulism | A sleep disorder characterized by complex motor behaviors and movement during sleep, commonly known as sleepwalking. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolute threshold | The minimum level of stimulation that can be detected at least 50% of the time. |
| accommodation | The process by which the lens focuses visual stimuli onto the retina to create a clear image. |
| afterimages | Visual images that persist after the original stimulus is removed, resulting from the activation of certain ganglion cells while others remain inactive. |
| auditory sensory system | The biological structures and processes involved in hearing, including the ear and neural pathways that detect and process sound. |
| balance | The ability to maintain equilibrium and stability of the body, controlled by the vestibular sense. |
| blind spot | The area of the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye, creating a gap in the visual field that the brain fills in to perceive a complete image. |
| blindsight | A disorder resulting from damage to visual brain areas in which individuals can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them. |
| chemical sensory systems | Sensory systems that detect chemical stimuli, including olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste). |
| cold receptors | Sensory receptors in the skin that respond to decreases in temperature and signal the sensation of cold. |
| color vision deficiency | A condition involving damage or irregularities to cones or ganglion cells that impairs color perception, including dichromatism or monochromatism. |
| conduction deafness | A type of hearing loss caused by damage to the structures that conduct sound waves through the outer and middle ear. |
| cones | Photoreceptor cells located in the fovea of the eye that process color and detail, including blue, green, and red cones that detect different wavelengths. |
| dichromatism | A type of color vision deficiency in which one type of cone or ganglion cell pair is damaged or absent, resulting in reduced color perception. |
| farsightedness | A refractive error that occurs when the accommodation process is altered, causing difficulty seeing nearby objects clearly. |
| fovea | The central region of the retina where cones are concentrated to process color and detail. |
| frequency theory | A theory of pitch perception proposing that the rate at which neurons fire corresponds to the frequency of the sound wave. |
| ganglion cells | Retinal cells involved in the opponent-process theory of color vision that are activated in opposing pairs to produce color perception. |
| gate control theory | A theory explaining how pain perception is modulated by the nervous system, suggesting that pain signals can be blocked or amplified at various points in the nervous system. |
| gustation | The sense of taste, which detects chemical compounds through taste receptors on the tongue. |
| just-noticeable difference | The smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected by an observer. |
| kinesthesis | The sense of one's own body movement and position in space, allowing coordinated movement without visual monitoring of body parts. |
| light and dark adaptation | The process by which rods adjust their sensitivity to changes in lighting conditions. |
| loudness | The perceptual intensity of sound determined by the amplitude of air molecule vibrations. |
| medium tasters | Individuals with an average number of taste receptors on their tongue, resulting in typical taste sensitivity. |
| monochromatism | A type of color vision deficiency in which only one type of cone functions or all cones are absent, resulting in the inability to perceive color. |
| nearsightedness | A refractive error that occurs when the accommodation process is altered, causing difficulty seeing distant objects clearly. |
| nontasters | Individuals with fewer taste receptors on their tongue, making them less sensitive to tastes. |
| occipital lobes | Brain lobes located at the rear of the cerebral cortex that process visual information. |
| oleogustus | A basic taste quality associated with the perception of fatty or oily substances. |
| olfactory stimuli | Chemical signals detected by the olfactory system that produce the sense of smell. |
| olfactory system | The sensory system responsible for detecting and processing smells through chemical receptors in the nose. |
| opponent-process theory | A theory of color vision explaining that color perception results from ganglion cells that are activated in opposing pairs (red/green, blue/yellow, black/white). |
| pain sensory system | The biological structures and neural pathways involved in detecting, transmitting, and processing pain signals from the body to the brain. |
| phantom limb sensation | The experience of sensation or pain in a limb that has been lost or amputated, resulting from continued neural activity in the brain's sensory cortex. |
| pheromones | Chemical substances produced by animals that communicate information to other members of the same species through the olfactory system. |
| pitch | The perceptual quality of sound determined by the frequency or wavelength of air molecule vibrations. |
| place theory | A theory of pitch perception proposing that different frequencies of sound stimulate different locations along the basilar membrane of the cochlea. |
| prosopagnosia | A disorder resulting from damage to visual brain areas, characterized by the inability to recognize faces despite intact general vision. |
| retina | The photosensitive surface at the back of the eye that captures visual information and transduces it to the brain for processing. |
| rods | Photoreceptor cells located in the periphery of the eye that detect shapes and movement but not color, and are mainly activated in low-light environments. |
| semicircular canals | Structures in the inner ear that detect rotational movements and changes in head position to maintain balance. |
| sensation | The process of detecting information from the environment that meets a certain threshold and converting stimuli into neurochemical messages for processing in the brain. |
| sensorineural deafness | A type of hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or the neural pathways that transmit sound information to the brain. |
| sensory adaptation | The diminished sensitivity to a stimulus that remains constant over time. |
| sensory interaction | The process by which different sensory systems work together to influence perception. |
| sound localization | The ability to identify the location or direction of a sound source in the environment. |
| supertasters | Individuals with a higher number of taste receptors on their tongue, making them more sensitive to tastes. |
| synesthesia | An experience of sensation in which stimulation of one sensory system is experienced through another sensory system. |
| taste receptors | Sensory cells on the tongue that detect and respond to different taste qualities. |
| thalamus | A brain structure that processes most sensory information before it reaches the cerebral cortex; the olfactory system bypasses this structure. |
| touch sensory system | The sensory system that processes tactile stimuli through receptors in the skin and neural pathways in the brain. |
| transduction | The process of converting physical stimuli into neurochemical messages that the brain can process. |
| trichromatic theory | A theory of color vision explaining that color perception results from three types of cones that detect different wavelengths of light. |
| umami | A basic taste quality characterized by a savory flavor, often associated with glutamate compounds. |
| vestibular sense | The sensory system that detects balance and spatial orientation, primarily through the semicircular canals in the inner ear. |
| volley theory | A theory of pitch perception proposing that groups of neurons fire in volleys to encode the frequency of sound waves. |
| warm receptors | Sensory receptors in the skin that respond to increases in temperature and signal the sensation of warmth. |
| Weber's law | A principle stating that the degree to which stimuli need to be different for the difference to be detected is proportional to the intensity of the original stimulus. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| apparent movement | The visual perception of movement in objects that are not actually moving, such as in phi phenomenon or motion illusions. |
| attention | The selective focus on specific sensory information while filtering out other stimuli, involving both sensation and perception. |
| binocular depth cues | Depth perception cues that require information from both eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence. |
| bottom-up processing | Perception driven by external sensory information, where sensory data is processed and built up into perceptions. |
| change blindness | The failure to perceive changes in the environment due to inattention or lack of focus on those changes. |
| closure | A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete by filling in missing information. |
| cocktail party effect | A phenomenon where people can selectively attend to specific information, such as hearing their name, in a noisy or distracting environment. |
| convergence | A binocular depth cue in which the brain merges the retinal images from both eyes to provide perception of depth. |
| figure and ground | A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive objects as distinct figures that stand out from their background. |
| Gestalt psychology | A psychological approach that explains how humans organize sensory information into meaningful wholes through perceptual principles. |
| interposition | A monocular depth cue in which objects that overlap or block other objects are perceived as closer. |
| linear perspective | A monocular depth cue in which parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, creating the illusion of depth. |
| monocular depth cues | Depth perception cues that can be perceived with one eye, including relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and interposition. |
| perception | The process by which sensory information is organized and interpreted to create a meaningful understanding of the world. |
| perceptual sets | Internal predispositions or expectations that influence how sensory information is perceived and interpreted. |
| proximity | A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive objects that are close together as a unified group. |
| relative clarity | A monocular depth cue in which objects that appear clearer or sharper are perceived as closer than blurry objects. |
| relative size | A monocular depth cue in which objects that appear larger are perceived as closer than objects that appear smaller. |
| retinal disparity | The difference between the images projected onto each retina, used as a binocular depth cue to perceive depth. |
| schemas | Mental frameworks or organized patterns of knowledge about the world that influence how information is perceived and interpreted. |
| selective attention | The ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring other competing stimuli in the environment. |
| similarity | A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive objects that share similar characteristics as a unified group. |
| texture gradient | A monocular depth cue in which texture becomes finer and less detailed as distance increases, creating the illusion of depth. |
| top-down processing | Perception driven by internal prior expectations and knowledge, where existing schemas influence how sensory information is interpreted. |
| visual perceptual constancies | The tendency to perceive objects as maintaining consistent properties such as size, shape, and color despite changes in the visual image. |
| visual perceptual processes | The cognitive mechanisms by which the visual system interprets sensory information from the eyes to create meaningful perceptions of the environment. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| accommodation | The process by which the lens focuses visual stimuli onto the retina to create a clear image. |
| algorithms | Problem-solving strategies that attempt all possible solutions systematically until the correct one is found. |
| assimilation | The cognitive process of incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing the schemas themselves. |
| availability heuristic | A mental shortcut where judgments are based on recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind. |
| cognitive biases | Systematic errors in thinking that affect judgment and decision-making. |
| concepts | Mental categories that organize information and form the basis of thought. |
| confirmation bias | The tendency to seek out, interpret, and remember information in ways that confirm existing beliefs or attitudes. |
| convergent thinking | A type of thinking that focuses on finding a single correct solution to a problem. |
| creativity | A way of thinking that involves generating novel ideas and engaging in divergent thinking. |
| divergent thinking | A type of creative thinking that generates multiple possible solutions or ideas from a single starting point. |
| executive functions | Cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and critical thinking. |
| framing | The way information is presented or contextualized, which can influence decision-making. |
| functional fixedness | A cognitive limitation where individuals perceive objects as having only their traditional function, hindering creative problem-solving. |
| heuristics | Mental shortcuts used to make judgments and solve problems quickly, though they can sometimes lead to errors. |
| mental set | A cognitive bias where prior successful experiences influence how a person approaches new problems. |
| overconfidence effect | A cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the accuracy of their beliefs and judgments. |
| priming | The influence of prior exposure to information on subsequent judgments and decisions. |
| prototypes | The ideal or most typical example of a given concept. |
| representativeness heuristic | A mental shortcut that leads to errors in judgment when decisions are made based on prior expectations or stereotypes. |
| schemas | Mental frameworks or organized patterns of knowledge about the world that influence how information is perceived and interpreted. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| automatic processing | Effortless encoding of information into memory that occurs without conscious attention. |
| central executive | A component of the working memory model that controls attention and coordinates information processing. |
| echoic memory | A type of sensory memory that briefly holds auditory information. |
| effortful processing | Conscious, deliberate encoding of information into memory that requires attention and effort. |
| episodic memory | A type of explicit memory for specific events and experiences. |
| explicit memory | A type of memory that can be easily described or explained to others, including episodic and semantic memory. |
| iconic memory | A type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual information. |
| implicit memory | A type of memory that is challenging to describe or explain to others, including procedural memory. |
| levels of processing model | A model proposing that memory is encoded at three levels from shallowest to deepest: structural, phonemic, and semantic. |
| long-term memory | A memory process that stores information for extended periods, potentially for a lifetime, with relatively unlimited capacity. |
| long-term potentiation | A biological process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation, underlying memory formation. |
| multi-store model | A model of memory proposing three interacting systems—sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory—through which information must pass to be remembered. |
| phonemic processing | The intermediate level of processing in the levels of processing model, focusing on the sound of information. |
| phonological loop | A component of the working memory model that processes verbal and acoustic information. |
| procedural memory | A type of implicit memory for procedures, skills, and processes. |
| prospective memory | A type of memory related to remembering to perform future actions. |
| semantic memory | A type of explicit memory for learned knowledge and facts. |
| semantic processing | The deepest level of processing in the levels of processing model, focusing on the meaning of information. |
| sensory memory | The initial memory process that holds sensory information for a very brief duration, typically less than a second. |
| short-term memory | A memory process that temporarily holds a limited amount of information, typically lasting from a few seconds to about a minute. |
| structural processing | The shallowest level of processing in the levels of processing model, focusing on the physical appearance of information. |
| visuospatial sketchpad | A component of the working memory model that processes visual and spatial information. |
| working memory | A memory process that actively manipulates and maintains information for immediate use in cognitive tasks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| chunking | The process of grouping information into meaningful units or chunks to improve encoding and memory capacity. |
| distributed practice | Learning or encoding information spread out over multiple sessions separated by time intervals. |
| encoding | The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory. |
| massed practice | Learning or encoding information all at once in a single, concentrated session. |
| memory consolidation | The process by which encoded information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory. |
| method of loci | A mnemonic device in which information is mentally associated with specific physical locations to aid memory encoding and retrieval. |
| mnemonic devices | Techniques or strategies used to aid in encoding and retrieving information from memory. |
| primacy effect | The tendency for information presented at the beginning of a list to be better encoded and remembered. |
| recency effect | The tendency for information presented at the end of a list to be better encoded and remembered. |
| serial position effect | The tendency for items at the beginning and end of a list to be more memorable than items in the middle during encoding. |
| spacing effect | The phenomenon in which information is better encoded and retained when learning is distributed over time rather than concentrated in a single session. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Alzheimer's disease | A progressive neurodegenerative disorder that impairs memory storage and other cognitive functions. |
| amnesia | A memory disorder involving loss of memory function, which can occur in different forms depending on when the loss occurs. |
| anterograde amnesia | A type of amnesia involving difficulty forming new memories for events that occur after the onset of the amnesia. |
| autobiographical memory | Memory for events and experiences from one's own life, which tends to be more memorable when connected to personal identity. |
| elaborative rehearsal | A memory strategy that involves processing information in meaningful ways to promote deeper encoding and better retention. |
| highly superior autobiographical memory | An exceptional ability to recall personal experiences and events in extraordinary detail, suggesting specialized biological memory processes. |
| infantile amnesia | A developmental limitation in which people typically cannot remember events from early childhood, usually before age 3 or 4. |
| long-term memory | A memory process that stores information for extended periods, potentially for a lifetime, with relatively unlimited capacity. |
| maintenance rehearsal | A memory strategy that involves repeating information over time to maintain it in memory without necessarily deepening understanding. |
| retrograde amnesia | A type of amnesia involving loss of memories for events that occurred before the onset of the amnesia. |
| sensory memory | The initial memory process that holds sensory information for a very brief duration, typically less than a second. |
| short-term memory | A memory process that temporarily holds a limited amount of information, typically lasting from a few seconds to about a minute. |
| working memory | A memory process that actively manipulates and maintains information for immediate use in cognitive tasks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| context-dependent memory | The enhanced ability to retrieve information when in the same environmental space as when the information was originally encoded. |
| memory retrieval | The process of accessing and bringing information out of memory storage. |
| metacognition | The awareness and understanding of one's own thinking processes and memory capabilities. |
| mood-congruent memory | The enhanced ability to retrieve information when in the same mood as when the information was originally encoded. |
| recall | A memory retrieval process in which information is remembered without the aid of retrieval cues. |
| recognition | A memory retrieval process that relies on retrieval cues to identify previously learned information. |
| retrieval cues | Stimuli or contextual information that help trigger the recall of stored memories. |
| retrieval practice | The process of repeatedly accessing and retrieving information from memory to enhance successful retrieval. |
| state-dependent memory | The enhanced ability to retrieve information when in the same physical state as when the information was originally encoded. |
| testing effect | The phenomenon in which retrieving information through testing produces better long-term retention than other study methods. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| constructive memory | The process by which memories are reconstructed and influenced by factors such as memory consolidation and imagination inflation rather than being retrieved as exact copies. |
| encoding failure | The failure to process and store information in memory during the initial learning phase. |
| forgetting curve | A graph showing that forgetting occurs rapidly after initial learning and gradually levels off over time. |
| imagination inflation | The tendency for repeated imagination or visualization of an event to increase confidence in false memories of that event. |
| interference | The disruption of memory retrieval when other similar memories compete for recall. |
| memory consolidation | The process by which encoded information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory. |
| misinformation effect | The distortion of memory accuracy when exposure to incorrect information after an event alters the memory of that event. |
| proactive interference | Forgetting that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the ability to remember new information. |
| repression | An ego defense mechanism in which threatening or painful memories and impulses are pushed into the unconscious mind. |
| retroactive interference | Forgetting that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information. |
| source amnesia | A memory error in which a person remembers information but forgets or misremembers the source of that information. |
| tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon | A retrieval failure in which a person feels certain they know information but cannot access it at that moment. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| academic achievement | The measurement of what a student has learned or accomplished in an educational setting, often assessed through tests and grades. |
| achievement tests | Standardized assessments designed to measure what someone currently knows or has learned in specific subject areas. |
| aptitude tests | Assessments designed to predict how someone will perform in the future or their potential to learn new skills. |
| bias | Systematic errors or prejudices in how intelligence is defined, measured, or interpreted that can affect the validity of assessments. |
| chronological age | The actual age of a person measured in years from birth. |
| construct validity | The extent to which a test accurately measures the theoretical construct or trait it claims to measure. |
| discrimination | Unfair treatment of individuals or groups based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status, which can negatively impact intelligence scores and limit opportunities. |
| educational inequities | Unequal access to quality education and educational resources across different groups, which can negatively influence intelligence scores. |
| fixed mindset | The belief that intelligence and abilities are innate and unchangeable from birth. |
| Flynn Effect | The observed increase in IQ scores across populations over time, attributed to societal factors such as improved socioeconomic status, better healthcare, and improved nutrition. |
| general ability | The theory that intelligence is a single, unified cognitive capacity that underlies performance across different types of tasks. |
| growth mindset | The belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed and improved through effort, practice, and experience. |
| intelligence | A general mental ability that can be defined and measured in various ways, though there is ongoing debate about whether it represents a single ability or multiple distinct abilities. |
| intelligence assessments | Standardized tests designed to measure cognitive abilities and intelligence, including IQ tests. |
| intelligence quotient (IQ) | A numerical score derived by dividing mental age by chronological age, used to measure and quantify intelligence. |
| mental age | A measure of cognitive development based on the average age at which individuals achieve a particular level of performance on intelligence tests. |
| multiple abilities | The theory that intelligence is comprised of several distinct cognitive capacities rather than a single general ability. |
| poverty | A state of economic hardship and lack of resources that can negatively influence intelligence scores and educational outcomes. |
| predictive validity | The extent to which a test score can predict future performance or outcomes on a related criterion. |
| psychometric principles | Fundamental standards and methods used in the design and evaluation of psychological tests and assessments. |
| reliability | The consistency and stability of test results, such that a test yields similar results when administered multiple times. |
| sociocultural biases | Prejudices and assumptions based on cultural and social backgrounds that can distort the interpretation of intelligence test scores and their relationship to outcomes. |
| socioeconomic status | A person's or group's position in society based on income, education, and occupation, which can influence access to resources and opportunities affecting intelligence scores. |
| split-half reliability | A measure of reliability determined by dividing a test into two equivalent halves and correlating performance between the halves. |
| standardized test | A test administered using consistent procedures and environments to ensure uniform conditions across all test-takers. |
| systemic issues | Structural problems and inequalities built into institutions and systems that affect groups of people, such as discrimination and educational inequities in intelligence assessment and interpretation. |
| test-retest reliability | A measure of reliability determined by administering the same test to the same individuals at different times and comparing the results. |
| validity | The degree to which a test measures what it is designed to measure. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| continuous development | The view that development occurs as a gradual, incremental process of change throughout the lifespan. |
| cross-sectional research design | A research method that compares different groups of participants at the same point in time to study age-related differences in behavior and mental processes. |
| developmental psychology | The branch of psychology that studies how behavior and mental processes change across the lifespan from infancy through old age. |
| discontinuous development | The view that development occurs in distinct stages or phases with qualitative changes between stages. |
| longitudinal research design | A research method that follows the same participants over an extended period of time to study how behavior and mental processes change across development. |
| nature and nurture | A thematic issue in developmental psychology exploring the relative contributions of genetic/biological factors (nature) and environmental/experiential factors (nurture) to development. |
| stability and change | A thematic issue in developmental psychology examining the extent to which characteristics remain consistent or transform across the lifespan. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| adolescent growth spurt | A period of rapid physical growth that occurs during adolescence, characterized by significant increases in height and weight. |
| adulthood | The stage of the lifespan characterized by physical maturity and generally lasting from early adulthood through old age, marked by changes in reproductive ability, mobility, and sensory acuity. |
| critical periods | Specific windows of time during infancy and childhood when the brain is particularly receptive to certain types of learning and development, especially for skills like language. |
| environmental factors | External conditions and influences during pregnancy, such as nutrition, stress, and exposure to substances, that affect prenatal development. |
| fine motor coordination | The development of precise, controlled movements using small muscles, typically in the hands and fingers, that allow children to perform tasks like grasping and manipulating objects. |
| flexibility | The range of motion in joints and muscles; a physical capacity that generally declines during adulthood. |
| genetic mutations | Permanent changes in DNA sequences that can be inherited and may affect physical development and behavior. |
| gross motor coordination | The development of controlled movements using large muscle groups that allow children to perform activities like crawling, walking, and running. |
| hormonal factors | Chemical messengers produced during pregnancy that regulate physical development and can influence prenatal growth and psychological development. |
| imprinting | A rapid learning process in which young animals form an attachment to the first object or organism they encounter, typically serving a survival function. |
| maternal illness | Diseases or health conditions in the mother during pregnancy that can negatively affect fetal development and birth outcomes. |
| menarche | The first menstrual period in females, marking the onset of menstruation during puberty. |
| menopause | The biological process in adulthood marked by the cessation of reproductive ability, typically occurring in middle adulthood. |
| mobility | The ability to move freely and easily; a physical capacity that generally declines during adulthood. |
| physical and psychological milestones | Significant developmental achievements during prenatal development that establish the foundation for physical growth and mental processes. |
| prenatal development | The biological processes and physical changes that occur from conception until birth, including the formation of major physical and psychological structures. |
| primary sex characteristics | Physical traits directly involved in reproduction that develop during puberty, including the reproductive organs. |
| puberty | The biological process during adolescence in which reproductive ability develops and the body undergoes physical changes. |
| reaction time | The time interval between a stimulus and a response; a measure of processing speed that generally increases (slows) during adulthood. |
| rooting reflex | An infant reflex in which a baby turns their head toward a touch on the cheek and opens their mouth, indicating normal physical and psychological development. |
| secondary sex characteristics | Physical traits that distinguish males from females but are not directly involved in reproduction, developing during puberty. |
| sensitive periods | Developmental windows during infancy and childhood when children are especially responsive to environmental influences and learning, with strong effects on skill development. |
| sensory acuity | The sharpness and sensitivity of the senses, including vision and hearing; a physical capacity that generally declines during adulthood. |
| spermarche | The first ejaculation in males, marking the onset of sperm production during puberty. |
| teratogens | Environmental agents or substances that can cause abnormal development and birth defects during prenatal development. |
| visual cliff apparatus | A research tool used to assess infant depth perception and fear of heights by observing whether infants will crawl over an apparent drop-off. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| gender | The social and psychological characteristics associated with being male or female, distinct from biological sex. |
| gender identity | An individual's personal sense of their own gender, which may or may not align with the sex assigned at birth. |
| gender roles | Socially constructed expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female that vary across cultures and historical periods. |
| sex | Biological characteristics typically used to classify individuals as male or female at birth. |
| sexual orientation | An individual's pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others, including heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual orientations. |
| socialization | The process through which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, and behaviors of their society, influenced by factors such as sex and gender. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abstract thinking | The ability to think about concepts, ideas, and possibilities that are not directly tied to concrete objects or immediate experiences. |
| accommodation | The process by which the lens focuses visual stimuli onto the retina to create a clear image. |
| animism | The tendency to attribute life, consciousness, or human characteristics to inanimate objects or natural phenomena. |
| assimilation | The cognitive process of incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing the schemas themselves. |
| concrete operational stage | Piaget's third stage of cognitive development (early through late childhood) in which children can think logically about concrete events but struggle with abstract thinking. |
| conservation | The understanding that the quantity of a substance remains the same even when its appearance or arrangement changes. |
| crystallized intelligence | Intelligence based on accumulated knowledge, skills, and experience that remains relatively stable throughout adulthood. |
| dementia | A cognitive disorder characterized by progressive decline in memory, thinking, and behavioral abilities that interferes with daily functioning. |
| egocentrism | The inability to take another person's perspective or viewpoint; the tendency to see the world only from one's own point of view. |
| fluid intelligence | The ability to reason abstractly, solve novel problems, and process information quickly, which tends to decline with age. |
| formal operational stage | Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development (late childhood through adulthood) in which individuals can think abstractly, hypothetically, and systematically. |
| hypothetical thinking | The ability to consider possibilities and imagine situations that may not exist in reality. |
| mental symbols | Internal representations of objects, events, or ideas that allow children to think about things not immediately present. |
| object permanence | The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight or perception. |
| preoperational stage | Piaget's second stage of cognitive development (toddlerhood through early childhood) characterized by the use of mental symbols and pretend play but limited logical reasoning. |
| pretend play | Imaginative play in which children use objects and situations to represent other things, demonstrating symbolic thinking. |
| reversibility | The cognitive ability to mentally reverse or undo an action or operation to return to its original state. |
| scaffolding | Temporary support provided by a more knowledgeable person to help a learner accomplish a task they cannot yet do independently. |
| schemas | Mental frameworks or organized patterns of knowledge about the world that influence how information is perceived and interpreted. |
| sensorimotor stage | Piaget's first stage of cognitive development (infancy through toddlerhood) in which children learn about the world through sensory experiences and motor actions. |
| sociocultural contexts | The social and cultural environments in which learning and development occur, including family, community, and cultural practices. |
| theory of mind | The understanding that other people have thoughts, beliefs, desires, and intentions that may differ from one's own. |
| zone of proximal development | The range of tasks that a person cannot yet perform independently but can accomplish with guidance and support from a more skilled individual. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| babbling | A stage of language development in which infants produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations like 'ba-ba-ba'. |
| communication | The exchange of information and ideas between individuals using language and other symbolic systems. |
| cooing | An early stage of language development in which infants produce soft, vowel-like sounds. |
| generative | The capacity of language to produce an infinite number of meaningful utterances from a finite set of rules and elements. |
| grammar | The system of rules that governs how words are combined and organized to form meaningful sentences in a language. |
| language | A shared system of arbitrary symbols that are rule-governed and generative, allowing for the production of an infinite number of ideas. |
| morphemes | The smallest units of meaning in a language, including words and word parts like prefixes and suffixes. |
| nonverbal manual gestures | Physical hand and arm movements, such as pointing, used to communicate meaning without spoken words. |
| one-word stage | A stage of language development in which children produce single words to express complete thoughts or requests. |
| overgeneralization | An error in language learning in which children apply grammatical rules too broadly, such as adding '-ed' to irregular verbs to form past tense. |
| phonemes | The smallest units of sound in a language that distinguish meaning between words. |
| semantics | The study of meaning in language, including how words and phrases convey meaning. |
| symbols | Arbitrary signs or representations that are mutually agreed upon to represent meaning within a language system. |
| syntax | The rules that govern the arrangement and order of words in sentences to create grammatically correct expressions. |
| telegraphic speech | A stage of language development in which children produce short utterances containing mainly content words while omitting function words like articles and prepositions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| acquisition | The process of learning an association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus through repeated pairings. |
| associative learning | Learning that occurs when an organism associates or connects two stimuli or a stimulus and a response. |
| behavioral perspective | An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and learning through conditioning. |
| biological preparedness | The innate predisposition of an organism to learn certain stimulus-response pairings more readily than others. |
| classical conditioning | A learning process in which an organism associates one stimulus with another stimulus to elicit a response. |
| conditioned response (CR) | A learned response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has occurred. |
| conditioned stimulus (CS) | A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response. |
| counterconditioning | A therapeutic technique in which a new response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response is paired with the conditioned stimulus. |
| extinction | The weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus. |
| habituation | A decrease in response to a repeated or enduring stimulus as an organism becomes accustomed to it. |
| higher-order conditioning | A process in which a conditioned stimulus is used as an unconditioned stimulus to condition a new stimulus. |
| one-trial conditioning | A type of learning in which an association is acquired through a single pairing of a stimulus and response without requiring further pairings. |
| spontaneous recovery | The reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction when the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired together again. |
| stimulus discrimination | The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli, responding only to the specific conditioned stimulus. |
| stimulus generalization | The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, even if they have not been directly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. |
| taste aversion | A learned avoidance of a food or taste acquired through classical conditioning, typically after one pairing with illness. |
| unconditioned response (UCR) | A natural, automatic response that occurs in reaction to an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning. |
| unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | A stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits an unconditioned response without prior learning. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| continuous reinforcement | A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after every correct behavior. |
| fixed-interval schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered for the first correct behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed. |
| fixed-ratio schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of correct behaviors. |
| instinctive drift | The tendency of organisms to revert to instinctive behaviors even when those behaviors interfere with operant conditioning. |
| Law of Effect | The principle that behaviors followed by reinforcing consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by punishing consequences are less likely to be repeated. |
| learned helplessness | A condition in which an organism learns that it has no control over aversive consequences and stops attempting to escape or avoid them. |
| negative punishment | The removal of a desirable consequence following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. |
| negative reinforcement | The removal of an undesirable consequence following a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. |
| operant conditioning | A learning process in which behavior is modified by its consequences, with reinforcement increasing the likelihood of a behavior and punishment decreasing it. |
| partial reinforcement | A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after some, but not all, correct behaviors. |
| positive punishment | The addition of an undesirable consequence following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. |
| positive reinforcement | The addition of a desirable consequence following a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. |
| primary reinforcer | A reinforcer that satisfies a basic biological need, such as food or water. |
| punishment | A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. |
| reinforcement | A consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. |
| reinforcement discrimination | The ability to distinguish between stimuli that are followed by reinforcement and those that are not, leading to differential responding. |
| reinforcement generalization | The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those associated with reinforcement in the same way as the original stimulus. |
| reinforcement schedule | The pattern or timing with which reinforcement is delivered following a behavior. |
| secondary reinforcer | A reinforcer that has acquired value through association with a primary reinforcer, such as money or praise. |
| shaping | A technique for conditioning a desired behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of that behavior. |
| superstitious behavior | Behavior that is reinforced by coincidental consequences unrelated to the behavior itself. |
| variable-interval schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered for the first correct behavior after a variable amount of time has passed. |
| variable-ratio schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of correct behaviors. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cognitive maps | Mental representations of spatial environments or relationships that are learned and can be used to navigate or solve problems. |
| insight learning | Learning that occurs when the solution to a problem is suddenly understood without prior association, reinforcement, or observation of a model. |
| latent learning | Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated in behavior, but can be revealed under appropriate conditions. |
| models | Individuals whose behavior is observed and imitated by others as a source of learning. |
| observation | The process of watching and learning from the behavior of others without direct personal experience. |
| social learning theory | A psychological theory proposing that learning can occur through observation of others and does not require direct personal experience with consequences. |
| vicarious conditioning | Learning that occurs by observing the consequences of another person's behavior rather than experiencing those consequences directly. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| actor/observer bias | The tendency to attribute one's own behavior to situational factors while attributing others' behavior to dispositional factors. |
| attribution theory | A psychological framework explaining how people interpret and explain the causes of behavior and mental processes in themselves and others. |
| attributions | Explanations that people make about the causes of behavior and mental processes. |
| dispositional attributions | Explanations for behavior based on internal qualities of a person, such as intelligence, personality, or character traits. |
| downward social comparison | Comparing oneself to people perceived as worse off or less successful, which can enhance self-esteem. |
| explanatory style | The characteristic way in which people explain the causes of good and bad events in their own lives and in the lives of others. |
| external locus of control | The belief that one's behavior and outcomes are primarily determined by external factors such as luck, fate, or forces beyond personal control. |
| fundamental attribution error | The tendency to overestimate the influence of dispositional factors and underestimate the influence of situational factors when explaining others' behavior. |
| internal locus of control | The belief that one's behavior and outcomes are primarily determined by personal factors such as effort, ability, and personal responsibility. |
| locus of control | A person's belief about the extent to which their behavior and outcomes are determined by internal factors (personal control) versus external factors (environmental or situational control). |
| mere exposure effect | The tendency for people to develop a preference for something simply because they are repeatedly exposed to it over time. |
| optimistic explanatory style | A tendency to attribute positive events to internal, stable causes and negative events to external, temporary causes. |
| person perception | The process by which individuals form impressions and judgments about other people's characteristics, traits, and behaviors. |
| pessimistic explanatory style | A tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable causes and positive events to external, temporary causes. |
| relative deprivation | The feeling of dissatisfaction that arises from comparing one's own situation to that of others who are perceived as better off. |
| self-fulfilling prophecy | A situation in which a person's beliefs or expectations about themselves or others cause them to behave in ways that make those beliefs come true. |
| self-serving bias | The tendency to attribute one's successes to internal factors and one's failures to external factors. |
| situational attributions | Explanations for behavior based on external circumstances or environmental factors that a person experiences. |
| social comparison | The process of evaluating oneself by comparing one's own characteristics, abilities, and opinions to those of other people. |
| upward social comparison | Comparing oneself to people perceived as better off or more successful, which can motivate improvement or lead to feelings of inadequacy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| attitude change | The process by which existing attitudes are modified or replaced in response to new information, experiences, or psychological pressures. |
| attitude formation | The process by which attitudes develop and are established through experience, learning, and social influence. |
| belief perseverance | The tendency for a belief to persist even when evidence suggests it is inaccurate, often reinforced by confirmation bias. |
| cognitive dissonance | The mental discomfort experienced when actions or attitudes conflict with each other, motivating people to reduce the discomfort by changing either their actions or attitudes. |
| cognitive load | The amount of mental effort or processing capacity required to complete a task or make a decision. |
| confirmation bias | The tendency to seek out, interpret, and remember information in ways that confirm existing beliefs or attitudes. |
| discrimination | Unfair treatment of individuals or groups based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status, which can negatively impact intelligence scores and limit opportunities. |
| ethnocentrism | The tendency to view one's own culture or ethnic group as superior and to judge other cultures by the standards of one's own culture. |
| implicit attitudes | Attitudes that individuals hold but may be unaware of or may not consciously acknowledge, often reflecting negative evaluations of others. |
| in-group bias | The tendency to favor and show preference for members of one's own group over members of other groups. |
| just-world phenomenon | A cognitive bias in which people believe that the world is just and that people get what they deserve, often leading to negative judgments of those who suffer misfortune. |
| out-group homogeneity bias | The tendency to perceive members of an out-group as more similar to each other than members of one's own in-group actually are. |
| prejudice | A negative attitude or evaluation toward a group or its members, often based on stereotypes and implicit attitudes. |
| stereotype | A generalized concept or belief about a group of people that can influence decision-making and judgments, and often serves as a basis for prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| altruism | Selfless concern for others; helping behavior motivated by genuine concern for another person's welfare rather than personal gain. |
| attentional variables | Factors related to a person's focus and awareness that affect whether they notice a situation requiring help and respond to it. |
| burnout | A state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by prolonged stress in the workplace, characterized by reduced effectiveness and motivation. |
| bystander effect | The phenomenon in which individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when other people are present than when they are alone. |
| central route to persuasion | A persuasion pathway involving careful, thoughtful analysis of persuasive arguments and evidence. |
| collectivism | A cultural orientation that emphasizes group harmony, interdependence, and collective welfare over individual goals and personal identity. |
| conformity | The tendency to adhere to unspoken rules, norms, or expectations of a group, often influenced by social pressure. |
| deindividuation | The loss of self-awareness and individual identity that occurs when a person is part of a group, often leading to increased conformity and sometimes antisocial behavior. |
| diffusion of responsibility | The tendency for individuals in a group to feel less personal responsibility for their actions because the responsibility is distributed among group members. |
| door-in-the-face technique | A persuasion method in which a large initial request is followed by a smaller request to increase compliance with the smaller request. |
| elaboration likelihood model | A theory of persuasion that describes two main routes through which people process persuasive messages: central route (thoughtful analysis) and peripheral route (superficial cues). |
| false consensus effect | The tendency to overestimate the degree to which others agree with one's own beliefs, values, and behaviors. |
| foot-in-the-door technique | A persuasion method in which a small initial request is followed by a larger request to increase compliance with the larger request. |
| group polarization | The tendency for group discussion to strengthen the initial inclinations of group members, leading to more extreme positions than individuals would hold alone. |
| groupthink | A psychological phenomenon where the desire for harmony and consensus in a group leads to dysfunctional decision-making and suppression of critical evaluation. |
| halo effect | A cognitive bias where the perception of one positive characteristic influences overall judgment of a person, often used as a peripheral route to persuasion. |
| individualism | A cultural orientation that emphasizes personal goals, independence, and individual identity over group harmony and collective welfare. |
| Industrial-organizational psychology | The branch of psychology that studies how people perform in workplace settings and applies psychological principles to improve management, workplace relationships, and employee well-being. |
| informational social influence | Social pressure to behave or think in ways based on the assumption that others possess accurate information about the situation. |
| multiculturalism | The coexistence and interaction of multiple cultural groups within a society, influencing how individuals perceive and behave towards themselves and others. |
| normative social influence | Social pressure to behave or think in ways that conform to group expectations in order to gain approval or avoid disapproval. |
| obedience | The tendency to comply with the directives or commands of an authority figure. |
| peripheral route to persuasion | A persuasion pathway involving superficial cues such as attractiveness or credibility rather than careful analysis of arguments. |
| persuasion | Techniques used to convince oneself or others to adopt particular ideas, actions, or beliefs. |
| prosocial behavior | Voluntary actions intended to benefit others, such as helping, sharing, or comforting. |
| situational variables | Environmental and contextual factors that influence whether a person will engage in helping behavior. |
| social debt | A perceived obligation to reciprocate help or favors that have been received from others. |
| social facilitation | The phenomenon where the presence of others enhances performance on well-learned or simple tasks but impairs performance on difficult or novel tasks. |
| social influence theory | A theoretical framework proposing that social pressure can cause people to behave or think in certain ways through normative or informational means. |
| social loafing | The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working as part of a group compared to when working alone. |
| social norms | Unwritten rules and expectations that define how members of a society should behave in individual and social situations. |
| social reciprocity norm | A social expectation that people should help and return favors to those who have helped them. |
| social responsibility norm | A social expectation that people should help others who are in need, regardless of whether they have helped us in the past. |
| social situation | The environmental and contextual factors involving other people that influence an individual's behavior and mental processes. |
| social traps | Situations where individuals acting in their own self-interest create outcomes that are detrimental to the group as a whole. |
| superordinate goals | Goals that require cooperation between groups and can only be achieved through joint effort, serving to reduce intergroup conflict and negative stereotyping. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| denial | An ego defense mechanism in which a person refuses to acknowledge a threatening reality or unpleasant truth. |
| displacement | An ego defense mechanism in which emotions or impulses are redirected from their original target to a safer or more acceptable target. |
| ego defense mechanisms | Unconscious psychological strategies that protect the ego from anxiety and threatening thoughts, including denial, displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, repression, and sublimation. |
| humanistic theory | A psychological approach to personality that emphasizes personal growth, self-fulfillment, and the individual's subjective experience as central to understanding personality. |
| preconscious | Mental content that is not currently in conscious awareness but can be brought into consciousness with effort. |
| projection | An ego defense mechanism in which a person attributes their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person. |
| projective tests | Personality assessment tools designed to reveal unconscious and preconscious thoughts by having individuals respond to ambiguous stimuli. |
| psychodynamic theory of personality | A theory that explains personality as being driven by unconscious processes and internal conflicts. |
| rationalization | An ego defense mechanism in which a person creates logical but false explanations for their behavior to protect self-image. |
| reaction formation | An ego defense mechanism in which a person expresses the opposite of their true unconscious feelings or impulses. |
| regression | An ego defense mechanism in which a person reverts to earlier, more childlike behaviors or emotional responses when facing stress or anxiety. |
| repression | An ego defense mechanism in which threatening or painful memories and impulses are pushed into the unconscious mind. |
| self-actualizing tendency | The innate human motivation to develop one's full potential and become the best version of oneself, viewed as a primary driving force in personality according to humanistic theory. |
| sublimation | An ego defense mechanism in which unacceptable impulses or emotions are channeled into socially acceptable activities or behaviors. |
| unconditional regard | Acceptance and support given to a person without conditions or judgment, considered a key factor in personality development within humanistic psychology. |
| unconscious processes | Mental activities and motivations that occur outside of conscious awareness and influence personality and behavior. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agreeableness | A Big Five personality trait characterized by tendencies toward cooperation, compassion, and concern for others. |
| Big Five theory | A trait theory of personality proposing that five major traits—agreeableness, openness to experience, extraversion, conscientiousness, and emotional stability—comprise personality. |
| conscientiousness | A Big Five personality trait characterized by organization, discipline, and tendency toward goal-directed behavior. |
| emotional stability | A Big Five personality trait characterized by the ability to manage stress and negative emotions, as opposed to neuroticism. |
| extraversion | A Big Five personality trait characterized by sociability, assertiveness, and tendency to seek stimulation and social interaction. |
| factor analysis | A statistical technique used to organize and identify patterns in personality inventory responses to determine underlying trait dimensions. |
| openness to experience | A Big Five personality trait characterized by curiosity, creativity, and receptiveness to new ideas and experiences. |
| personality inventories | Specialized assessment tools used to measure personality traits by collecting and analyzing responses to standardized items. |
| reciprocal determinism | The concept that personality is shaped by the mutual influence of a person's thoughts and beliefs, their environment, and their behavior. |
| self-concept | An individual's perception and understanding of themselves, including how they view themselves in relation to others. |
| self-efficacy | A person's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish particular tasks. |
| self-esteem | A person's overall evaluation of their own worth and value as an individual. |
| social-cognitive theory | A theory of personality that emphasizes how personality is shaped by the interaction between a person's thoughts, environment, and behavior. |
| trait theories of personality | Psychological theories that explain personality as a set of enduring characteristics that lead to typical responses to stimuli. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| approach-approach conflict | A type of motivational conflict in which a person must choose between two desirable options. |
| approach-avoidance conflict | A type of motivational conflict in which a person is drawn toward an option that also has negative consequences. |
| arousal theory | A theory of motivation proposing that people seek an optimal level of arousal when they behave. |
| avoidance-avoidance conflict | A type of motivational conflict in which a person must choose between two undesirable options. |
| belongingness | A fundamental human motivation to form and maintain social connections and feel accepted by others. |
| boredom susceptibility | A type of sensation seeking characterized by a low tolerance for monotony and a need for stimulation. |
| disinhibition | A type of sensation seeking characterized by the desire to engage in uninhibited social behavior and escape from constraints. |
| drive-reduction theory | A theory of motivation proposing that certain behaviors help maintain homeostasis by reducing physiological drives or needs. |
| experience seeking | A type of sensation seeking characterized by the desire to seek varied or novel experiences through one's senses and mind. |
| extrinsic motivation | External motivation driven by rewards, punishments, or other outside factors rather than personal interest. |
| ghrelin | A hormone that increases appetite and signals hunger to the brain, primarily produced in the stomach. |
| homeostasis | The maintenance of stable internal physiological conditions necessary for survival and functioning. |
| hunger | The physiological drive or sensation that motivates eating behavior in response to the body's need for food. |
| hypothalamus | A brain structure within the limbic system that regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, and other homeostatic functions. |
| incentive theory | A theory of motivation exploring the role of rewards in motivating behavior. |
| instincts | Innate, typically fixed patterns of behavior in animals that occur in response to certain stimuli. |
| intrinsic motivation | Internal motivation driven by personal satisfaction, interest, or enjoyment rather than external rewards. |
| leptin | A hormone that decreases appetite and signals satiety (fullness) to the brain, produced by fat cells. |
| Lewin's motivational conflicts theory | A theory proposing that choices create conflicts one must resolve as the basis of motivation. |
| motivated behavior | Behavior driven by internal or external factors that direct an organism toward a goal or need satisfaction. |
| pituitary gland | An endocrine gland within the limbic system that releases hormones controlling growth, metabolism, and other bodily functions. |
| satiety | The feeling of fullness or satisfaction after eating that reduces the motivation to continue eating. |
| self-determination theory | A theory of motivation proposing that people are motivated by intrinsic (internal) or extrinsic (external) motivations. |
| sensation-seeking theory | A theory proposing that one's level of need for varied or novel experiences is the basis of motivation. |
| thrill or adventure seeking | A type of sensation seeking characterized by the desire to engage in risky or exciting activities. |
| Yerkes-Dodson Law | A principle demonstrating the relationship between arousal level and performance, showing that optimal performance occurs at moderate levels of arousal. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| affect | The emotional experience or feeling state of an individual; often used interchangeably with emotion in psychology. |
| broaden-and-build theory | A theory of emotion proposing that positive emotions expand awareness and encourage new thoughts and actions, while negative emotions narrow thinking and action. |
| cognitive appraisal | The mental process of interpreting and evaluating a situation, which influences the emotional response experienced. |
| cognitive experience | The mental interpretation and understanding of emotion, including thoughts and awareness of emotional states. |
| display rules | Cultural norms that regulate how and when emotions can be expressed, which may vary across different cultures, genders, ages, or socioeconomic classes. |
| elicitors | Stimuli or situations that trigger or evoke emotional responses, which can vary across different cultures and groups. |
| emotion | A complex psychological process involving both physiological and cognitive components that reflects internal and external factors affecting an individual. |
| facial-feedback hypothesis | The theory that the experience of emotion is influenced by facial expressions, suggesting that physical facial movements can affect emotional feelings. |
| physiological experience | The bodily and biological responses associated with emotion, such as changes in heart rate, breathing, and hormone levels. |
| social norms | Unwritten rules and expectations that define how members of a society should behave in individual and social situations. |
| universality of emotions | The concept that certain emotions are commonly experienced and expressed across different cultures, though research shows mixed results on the extent of this universality. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) | Traumatic or stressful events experienced during childhood that can have lasting effects on physical and mental health throughout the lifespan. |
| alarm reaction | The first stage of the general adaptation syndrome, occurring when stress is initially encountered, characterized by a fight-flight-freeze response. |
| behavior | Observable actions and responses of individuals that can influence health outcomes and wellness. |
| coping | The strategies and behaviors people use to manage stress and its effects on behavior and mental processes. |
| daily hassles | Minor, recurring stressful events in everyday life that can accumulate and affect overall well-being. |
| distress | Negative or debilitating stress that impairs functioning and well-being. |
| emotion-focused coping | A coping strategy in which a person manages their emotional reactions to stress through techniques such as deep breathing, meditation, or medication to reduce emotional distress. |
| eustress | Positive or motivating stress that can enhance performance and well-being. |
| exhaustion phase | The third stage of the general adaptation syndrome, occurring when stress subsides or the body's resources become depleted, resulting in increased susceptibility to illness. |
| fight-flight-freeze response | An immediate physiological and behavioral reaction to a perceived threat, involving either confronting the stressor, escaping it, or becoming immobilized. |
| general adaptation syndrome (GAS) | A three-stage model describing the body's physiological response to stress: alarm reaction, resistance phase, and exhaustion phase. |
| health psychology | The branch of psychology that studies how psychological factors influence physical health, illness, and wellness. |
| hypertension | Elevated blood pressure, a physiological condition linked to chronic stress. |
| immune suppression | A weakening of the immune system's ability to fight illness and infection, often resulting from prolonged stress. |
| mental processes | Cognitive and psychological functions including thoughts, emotions, and perceptions that affect physical health and wellness. |
| physical health | The state of bodily functions and systems, including absence of disease and optimal functioning of the body. |
| problem-focused coping | A coping strategy in which a person addresses stress by identifying it as a problem and actively working toward finding and implementing solutions. |
| resistance phase | The second stage of the general adaptation syndrome, occurring as the body attempts to cope with and confront ongoing stress. |
| stress | A psychological and physiological response to demands or threats that can affect behavior, mental processes, and physical health. |
| stressors | Environmental or internal stimuli that trigger a stress response in an individual. |
| tend-and-befriend theory | A theory proposing that some individuals, particularly women, respond to stress by attending to their own needs and/or others' needs while seeking social connection. |
| traumatic stressors | Severe, overwhelming stressful events that can have significant psychological and physiological impacts. |
| wellness | A state of overall well-being that encompasses physical, mental, and social health. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| character strengths | Positive traits and virtues classified into six categories: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. |
| gratitude | A positive subjective experience involving appreciation and thankfulness that contributes to increased subjective well-being. |
| positive emotions | Emotional states such as joy, contentment, and hope that contribute to psychological well-being and life satisfaction. |
| positive psychology | An approach to psychology that focuses on identifying factors that lead to well-being, resilience, positive emotions, and psychological health rather than solely studying mental illness and dysfunction. |
| positive subjective experiences | Personal feelings and perceptions of positivity that individuals experience, such as gratitude or happiness, which influence behavior and mental processes. |
| posttraumatic growth | A positive subjective experience that may result from the experience of trauma or stress, involving personal development and positive psychological change. |
| psychological health | A state of mental and emotional well-being characterized by adaptive functioning and the absence of significant psychological distress. |
| resilience | The ability to recover from or adapt to difficult experiences and maintain psychological health in the face of adversity. |
| signature strengths | An individual's most prominent character strengths or virtues that, when exercised, contribute to higher levels of happiness and subjective well-being. |
| subjective well-being | An individual's personal evaluation of their life satisfaction and emotional experiences, often increased through positive practices like gratitude and exercising personal strengths. |
| virtues | Six fundamental categories of character strengths: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. |
| well-being | A state of overall psychological and emotional health characterized by life satisfaction and positive functioning. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| behavioral perspective | An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and learning through conditioning. |
| biological perspective | A psychological approach that explains mental disorders as resulting from physiological or genetic issues. |
| biopsychosocial model | A model that explains psychological disorders as arising from a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. |
| cognitive perspective | A psychological approach that explains mental disorders as resulting from maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or emotions. |
| deviation from social norm | Behaviors or mental processes that differ significantly from what is considered typical or acceptable within a particular culture or society. |
| Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) | A classification system developed by the American Psychiatric Association that provides diagnostic criteria for mental disorders. |
| diathesis | A genetic or biological predisposition or vulnerability to developing a psychological disorder. |
| diathesis-stress model | A model that explains psychological disorders as developing from the interaction between genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and stressful life experiences (stress). |
| eclectic approach | A therapeutic method that combines techniques and theories from multiple psychological perspectives when diagnosing and treating clients. |
| evidence-based diagnostic tools | Standardized assessment instruments and procedures supported by scientific research used to identify and diagnose psychological disorders. |
| evolutionary perspective | A theoretical approach that explores how natural selection affects the expression of behavior and mental processes to increase survival and reproductive success. |
| humanistic perspective | A psychological approach that explains mental disorders as resulting from lack of social support and inability to fulfill one's potential. |
| interaction models | Frameworks that explain psychological disorders as resulting from the combined effects of multiple factors rather than a single cause. |
| International Classification of Mental Disorders (ICD) | A classification system developed by the World Health Organization that categorizes mental and behavioral disorders. |
| level of dysfunction | The degree to which a psychological condition impairs an individual's ability to function in daily life. |
| maladaptive learned associations | Harmful connections between stimuli and responses that develop through learning and contribute to psychological disorders. |
| perception of distress | An individual's subjective experience of emotional or psychological suffering related to their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. |
| psychodynamic perspective | A psychological approach that explains mental disorders as resulting from unconscious thoughts and experiences, often originating in childhood. |
| psychological disorders | Patterns of behavioral or mental processes that deviate from social norms, cause distress, or result in dysfunction. |
| sociocultural perspective | A psychological approach that explains mental disorders as resulting from maladaptive social and cultural relationships and dynamics. |
| stigma | Negative stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination associated with having a psychological disorder. |
| stress | A psychological and physiological response to demands or threats that can affect behavior, mental processes, and physical health. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| acrophobia | A specific phobia characterized by fear of heights. |
| acute | A sudden onset or short-term manifestation of a condition, as opposed to chronic. |
| agoraphobia | An anxiety disorder involving intense fear of specific social situations such as public transportation, open spaces, enclosed spaces, crowds, or being outside the home alone. |
| anorexia nervosa | An eating disorder characterized by severe restriction of food intake and an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to significantly low body weight. |
| antisocial personality disorder | A Cluster B personality disorder characterized by disregard for the rights of others and lack of remorse for harmful actions. |
| anxiety disorders | A category of psychological disorders characterized by excessive fear and/or anxiety with related disturbances to behavior. |
| arachnophobia | A specific phobia characterized by fear of spiders. |
| ataque de nervios | A culture-bound anxiety disorder experienced mainly by people of Caribbean or Iberian descent, manifesting as panic attacks. |
| attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interfere with functioning or development. |
| autism spectrum disorder (ASD) | A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent difficulties in social communication and interaction, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. |
| avoidant personality disorder | A Cluster C personality disorder characterized by social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to rejection. |
| biological sources | Physical or physiological factors, such as brain chemistry or neural functioning, that may contribute to the development of obsessive-compulsive disorders. |
| bipolar cycling | The alternating pattern of experiencing periods of depression and mania in bipolar disorders, which can vary in duration and frequency. |
| bipolar disorders | Mental health conditions characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression that can significantly impact mood, energy, and functioning. |
| Bipolar I disorder | A bipolar disorder characterized by at least one manic episode, often accompanied by depressive episodes. |
| Bipolar II disorder | A bipolar disorder characterized by hypomanic episodes and depressive episodes, but without full manic episodes. |
| borderline personality disorder | A Cluster B personality disorder characterized by unstable relationships, intense fear of abandonment, and emotional instability. |
| bulimia nervosa | An eating disorder characterized by cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as purging, fasting, or excessive exercise. |
| catatonia | A state of disordered movement that may be experienced as excitement (a positive symptom) or stupor (a negative symptom manifestation). |
| catatonic stupor | A negative symptom manifestation of catatonia characterized by a lack of movement or responsiveness. |
| chronic | A long-term or persistent manifestation of a condition that develops gradually over time. |
| Cluster A | The odd or eccentric cluster of personality disorders, including paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders. |
| Cluster B | The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster of personality disorders, including antisocial, histrionic, narcissistic, and borderline personality disorders. |
| Cluster C | The anxious or fearful cluster of personality disorders, including avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. |
| cognitive changes | Mental or thinking-related symptoms in depressive disorders, such as difficulty concentrating, negative thoughts, or impaired decision-making. |
| compulsions | Intrusive, often repetitive behaviors or mental acts performed in response to obsessions, typically intended to reduce anxiety or prevent a feared outcome. |
| culture-bound anxiety disorder | An anxiety disorder that is specific to or more prevalent in particular cultural groups, such as ataque de nervios or taijin kyofusho. |
| delusions | False beliefs that persist despite contradictory evidence; a positive symptom of schizophrenia that may include delusions of persecution or grandeur. |
| dependent personality disorder | A Cluster C personality disorder characterized by excessive need to be cared for and difficulty making independent decisions. |
| depression | A period of persistently low mood, reduced energy, and diminished interest in activities often associated with bipolar disorders. |
| depressive disorders | A category of psychological disorders characterized by persistent sad, empty, or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that impair functioning. |
| developmental period | The time span during childhood and adolescence when neurodevelopmental disorders typically first appear and are identified. |
| disorganized motor behavior | Abnormal or purposeless physical movements and behaviors; a symptom of schizophrenia that may manifest as catatonia. |
| disorganized thinking or speech | A positive symptom of schizophrenia characterized by incoherent or illogical thought patterns and speech, such as word salad. |
| dissociation | A disconnection or separation from consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, or behavior. |
| dissociative amnesia | A dissociative disorder involving the inability to recall important personal information, typically related to traumatic or stressful events. |
| dissociative disorders | A category of psychological disorders characterized by disruptions in consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior. |
| dissociative identity disorder | A dissociative disorder characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states or identities, often resulting from severe trauma. |
| dopamine hypothesis | A biological theory suggesting that schizophrenia may result from imbalances in dopamine, a neurotransmitter in the brain. |
| emotional detachment | A symptom characterized by reduced emotional responsiveness and disconnection from others, often occurring in trauma and stressor-related disorders. |
| emotional responses | Feelings and affective reactions that can be maladaptive and contribute to the etiology of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. |
| empty mood | A symptom of depressive disorders characterized by a sense of emotional numbness or lack of feeling rather than active sadness. |
| feeding and eating disorders | Psychological disorders characterized by altered consumption or absorption of food that impairs health or psychological functioning. |
| flashbacks | Intrusive, vivid recollections of traumatic or stressful experiences that feel as if they are happening in the present moment. |
| flat affect | A negative symptom of schizophrenia characterized by a lack of emotional expression or reduced emotional responsiveness. |
| fugue | A dissociative state involving sudden, unexpected travel away from home or one's usual environment, often accompanied by amnesia about one's identity or past. |
| generalized anxiety disorder | An anxiety disorder characterized by prolonged experiences of nonspecific anxiety or fear. |
| genetic sources | Hereditary factors and family history that may predispose individuals to developing obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. |
| hallucinations | False perceptions or sensory experiences that occur without external stimuli; a positive symptom of schizophrenia that may involve one or more senses. |
| histrionic personality disorder | A Cluster B personality disorder characterized by excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior. |
| hoarding disorder | A disorder characterized by persistent difficulty discarding possessions, regardless of their actual value, resulting in excessive accumulation of items. |
| hostility | Aggressive or antagonistic behavior and attitudes that may manifest as a symptom of trauma and stressor-related disorders. |
| hypervigilance | A state of heightened alertness and constant scanning of the environment for potential threats, often seen in trauma and stressor-related disorders. |
| insomnia | A sleep disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep. |
| irritable mood | A symptom of depressive disorders characterized by increased irritability, frustration, or anger rather than sadness. |
| learned associations | Connections between stimuli formed through experience that can contribute to the development and maintenance of obsessive-compulsive symptoms. |
| major depressive disorder | A depressive disorder characterized by one or more major depressive episodes involving depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure lasting at least two weeks with significant functional impairment. |
| maladaptive thinking | Unhealthy or counterproductive thought patterns that contribute to psychological distress and the development of psychological disorders. |
| mania | A period of abnormally elevated mood, increased energy, and heightened activity often associated with bipolar disorders. |
| narcissistic personality disorder | A Cluster B personality disorder characterized by grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy. |
| negative symptoms | Symptoms of schizophrenia characterized by the absence or reduction of typical behaviors, such as flat affect or lack of movement. |
| neurodevelopmental disorders | A group of disorders that begin during the developmental period and involve difficulties with behaviors and skills appropriate for a person's age or maturity level. |
| obsessions | Intrusive, unwanted thoughts, images, or urges that cause anxiety or distress and are difficult to control or dismiss. |
| obsessive-compulsive disorder | A mental disorder characterized by the presence of obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors) that significantly interfere with daily functioning. |
| obsessive-compulsive personality disorder | A Cluster C personality disorder characterized by preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control. |
| panic attacks | Unanticipated and overwhelming biological, cognitive, and emotional experiences of fear or anxiety that occur in panic disorder. |
| panic disorder | An anxiety disorder characterized by the experience of panic attacks, which are unanticipated and overwhelming biological, cognitive, and emotional experiences of fear or anxiety. |
| paranoid personality disorder | A Cluster A personality disorder characterized by pervasive distrust and suspicion of others. |
| persistent depressive disorder | A depressive disorder characterized by a chronically depressed mood lasting at least two years in adults, with symptoms less severe than major depressive disorder but more enduring. |
| personality disorders | Enduring patterns of internal experience and behavior that deviate from one's culture, are inflexible and pervasive, begin in adolescence or early adulthood, remain stable over time, and cause personal distress or impairment. |
| physical changes | Bodily symptoms in depressive disorders, such as changes in sleep, appetite, energy level, or psychomotor activity. |
| positive symptoms | Symptoms of schizophrenia involving the presence of abnormal experiences or behaviors, such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech. |
| posttraumatic stress disorder | A trauma and stressor-related disorder that develops following exposure to a traumatic event and involves symptoms such as flashbacks, hypervigilance, and emotional distress. |
| sad mood | A primary emotional symptom of depressive disorders characterized by persistent feelings of sadness or unhappiness. |
| schizoid personality disorder | A Cluster A personality disorder characterized by detachment from social relationships and restricted emotional expression. |
| schizophrenic spectrum disorders | A group of mental health conditions characterized by disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior, including symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking. |
| schizotypal personality disorder | A Cluster A personality disorder characterized by eccentric behavior, unusual perceptual experiences, and social anxiety. |
| severe anxiety | Intense fear or worry that persists as a symptom of trauma and stressor-related disorders. |
| social anxiety disorder | An anxiety disorder involving intense fear of being judged or watched by others. |
| specific phobia | An anxiety disorder involving fear or anxiety toward a specific object or situation, such as heights or spiders. |
| stress | A psychological and physiological response to demands or threats that can affect behavior, mental processes, and physical health. |
| taijin kyofusho | A culture-bound anxiety disorder experienced mainly by Japanese people in which individuals fear that others are judging their bodies as undesirable, offensive, or unpleasing. |
| trauma | A deeply distressing or disturbing experience that can serve as a cause or contributing factor to dissociative disorders. |
| trauma and stressor-related disorders | A category of psychological disorders characterized by exposure to a traumatic or stressful event followed by psychological distress and maladaptive symptoms. |
| word salad | A pattern of speech in which words are strung together in nonsensical or incoherent ways, reflecting disorganized thinking. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| active listening | A therapeutic technique in which the therapist fully attends to and reflects back what the client is saying to demonstrate understanding and empathy. |
| anti-anxiety drugs | Psychoactive medications used to reduce symptoms of anxiety disorders. |
| antidepressants | Psychoactive medications used to treat depression by affecting neurotransmitter levels in the brain. |
| antipsychotic medications | Psychoactive medications used to treat psychotic symptoms by affecting dopamine and other neurotransmitters. |
| anxiety | A psychological condition characterized by worry or fear that hypnosis has demonstrated effectiveness in treating. |
| applied behavior analysis | The application of conditioning principles to address mental disorders and developmental disabilities through systematic behavioral interventions. |
| aversion therapy | A behavioral therapy technique that pairs an undesired behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce or eliminate the behavior. |
| biofeedback | A conditioning-based technique that provides clients with real-time information about their body systems to help them regulate physiological responses associated with anxiety or depression. |
| cognitive restructuring | A cognitive therapy technique that involves identifying and challenging maladaptive or irrational thoughts and replacing them with more realistic ones. |
| cognitive triad | In cognitive therapy, the three components of depression consisting of negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future. |
| cognitive-behavioral therapy | A therapeutic approach that combines cognitive and behavioral techniques to treat mental and behavioral disorders. |
| cultural humility | An approach in therapy where therapists recognize and respect cultural differences, acknowledge their own limitations, and work to understand clients' cultural backgrounds. |
| deinstitutionalization | The process of releasing large numbers of patients from hospitals and asylums into community-based care settings. |
| dialectical behavior therapy | A cognitive-behavioral therapy that combines acceptance and change strategies, particularly used to treat borderline personality disorder and other disorders. |
| dream interpretation | A psychodynamic technique in which the therapist analyzes a client's dreams to access unconscious thoughts and conflicts. |
| electroconvulsive therapy | An invasive biological intervention that uses electrical currents to induce controlled seizures for treating severe mental disorders. |
| ethical principles | Fundamental moral guidelines that psychologists must follow when treating psychological disorders, established by professional organizations like the APA. |
| evidence-based interventions | Treatment approaches that are supported by scientific research demonstrating their effectiveness in treating psychological disorders. |
| fear hierarchies | A cognitive therapy technique in which feared situations are ranked from least to most anxiety-provoking to guide exposure-based treatment. |
| fidelity | The ethical principle of being faithful and loyal to clients, maintaining trust and honoring commitments in therapeutic relationships. |
| free association | A psychodynamic technique in which clients freely express thoughts, feelings, and memories without censorship to uncover unconscious material. |
| group therapy | A form of psychotherapy in which a therapist works with multiple clients simultaneously, allowing them to share experiences and provide support to one another. |
| hypnosis | A therapeutic technique used to induce a focused state of consciousness that can be effective for treating certain psychological conditions. |
| individual therapy | A form of psychotherapy in which a therapist works one-on-one with a single client to address their psychological concerns. |
| integrity | The ethical principle of being honest, truthful, and maintaining consistency between words and actions in psychological practice. |
| lithium | A psychoactive medication used primarily to treat bipolar disorder by affecting neurotransmitter function. |
| lobotomy | A form of psychosurgery that was performed in the mid-20th century but is rarely used today to treat mental disorders. |
| meta-analytic studies | Research that combines and analyzes data from multiple studies to draw overall conclusions about the effectiveness of treatments or interventions. |
| neurotransmitters | Chemical messengers in the nervous system that transmit signals between neurons and are targeted by psychoactive medications. |
| nonmaleficence | The ethical principle of avoiding harm to clients in psychological treatment. |
| pain | A physical or emotional sensation that hypnosis has been shown to help manage or reduce. |
| parasympathetic nervous system | The division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the 'rest and digest' response that helps reduce anxiety and promote relaxation. |
| person-centered therapy | A humanistic therapy approach that emphasizes the therapist's use of active listening and unconditional positive regard to facilitate client growth. |
| psychosurgery | Surgical interventions on the brain used to treat mental disorders, which may involve lesioning brain tissue. |
| psychotherapy | Treatment of psychological disorders through psychological techniques and interventions rather than medical procedures. |
| psychotropic medication | Drugs that affect mood, perception, and behavior by altering brain chemistry to treat psychological disorders. |
| rational-emotive behavior therapy | A cognitive-behavioral therapy that focuses on identifying and challenging irrational beliefs that lead to emotional distress. |
| respect for people's rights and dignity | The ethical principle of honoring clients' autonomy, privacy, and inherent worth as individuals in psychological treatment. |
| sympathetic nervous system | The division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the 'fight or flight' response that contributes to feelings of anxiety. |
| systematic desensitization | An exposure therapy technique that gradually exposes clients to feared stimuli while in a relaxed state to reduce anxiety responses. |
| tardive dyskinesia | A movement disorder that can develop as a side effect of antipsychotic medications due to changes in dopamine regulation. |
| therapeutic alliance | The collaborative relationship and trust established between a therapist and client, which is essential for successful treatment outcomes. |
| token economy | A behavioral therapy system in which clients earn tokens or rewards for desired behaviors that can be exchanged for privileges or reinforcers. |
| transcranial magnetic stimulation | A non-invasive brain stimulation technique that uses magnetic pulses to treat mental disorders. |
| unconditional positive regard | A humanistic therapy principle in which the therapist accepts and values the client without judgment or conditions. |
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