| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bourgeoisie | The middle class that emerged during industrialization, consisting of merchants, manufacturers, and professionals who owned capital and means of production. |
| family structure | The organization and relationships within families, which were significantly altered by industrialization and changing economic conditions. |
| ideologies | Systems of beliefs and ideas, such as socialism, liberalism, and conservatism, that developed as responses to industrial and political revolutions. |
| industrial revolution | The period of rapid industrialization and mechanization that began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, fundamentally transforming economic and social life. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| iron and steel production | The manufacturing of iron and steel materials, key industries that drove industrial development and enabled construction and transportation advances. |
| mechanization | The replacement of manual labor with machines and mechanical processes in production. |
| political revolutions | Movements and upheavals that challenged existing political systems and structures during the age of industrialization. |
| social dislocations | Disruptions to traditional social structures and ways of life caused by rapid industrialization and urbanization. |
| state sponsorship | Government support and investment in industrial development, used by continental European states to promote industrialization. |
| textile production | The manufacturing of cloth and fabric goods, one of the first industries to be mechanized during the Industrial Revolution. |
| transportation systems | Infrastructure and technologies for moving goods and people, including railroads and canals that facilitated industrial expansion. |
| urbanization | The rapid growth of cities and the movement of populations from rural to urban areas as a result of industrial development. |
| working class | The social class of industrial workers and laborers who worked in factories and mines during the Industrial Revolution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bourgeoisie | The middle class that emerged during industrialization, consisting of merchants, manufacturers, and professionals who owned capital and means of production. |
| family structure | The organization and relationships within families, which were significantly altered by industrialization and changing economic conditions. |
| ideologies | Systems of beliefs and ideas, such as socialism, liberalism, and conservatism, that developed as responses to industrial and political revolutions. |
| industrial revolution | The period of rapid industrialization and mechanization that began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, fundamentally transforming economic and social life. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| innovations | New inventions, methods, or technologies that introduce significant changes to production, transportation, or communication systems. |
| iron and steel production | The manufacturing of iron and steel materials, key industries that drove industrial development and enabled construction and transportation advances. |
| mechanization | The replacement of manual labor with machines and mechanical processes in production. |
| political revolutions | Movements and upheavals that challenged existing political systems and structures during the age of industrialization. |
| social dislocations | Disruptions to traditional social structures and ways of life caused by rapid industrialization and urbanization. |
| state sponsorship | Government support and investment in industrial development, used by continental European states to promote industrialization. |
| technological developments | Advances in machinery, tools, and production techniques that transformed manufacturing and transportation in Europe from 1815 to 1914. |
| textile production | The manufacturing of cloth and fabric goods, one of the first industries to be mechanized during the Industrial Revolution. |
| transportation systems | Infrastructure and technologies for moving goods and people, including railroads and canals that facilitated industrial expansion. |
| urbanization | The rapid growth of cities and the movement of populations from rural to urban areas as a result of industrial development. |
| working class | The social class of industrial workers and laborers who worked in factories and mines during the Industrial Revolution. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural practices | Methods and techniques used in farming; primitive or traditional practices hindered industrialization in some regions. |
| autocratic | A system of government in which one person holds absolute power without constitutional limits. |
| capitalists | Individuals who invest capital in business enterprises and industrial ventures to generate profit. |
| Corn Laws | British tariffs on imported grain that protected domestic agricultural interests; their repeal in 1846 reflected growing commercial and industrial influence in Parliament. |
| human capital | The skills, knowledge, and expertise of workers, including engineers, inventors, and capitalists who drive economic development. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| iron and steel production | The manufacturing of iron and steel materials, key industries that drove industrial development and enabled construction and transportation advances. |
| mechanization | The replacement of manual labor with machines and mechanical processes in production. |
| parliamentary government | A system of government where elected representatives in a parliament make laws and policy decisions. |
| private initiative | Economic activity and investment undertaken by private individuals and businesses rather than by government. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources extracted from colonies and foreign lands that were used in European commercial and industrial enterprises. |
| serfdom | A system of labor and land tenure in which peasants were bound to the land and owed obligations to noble landowners, codified in eastern Europe during this period. |
| textile production | The manufacturing of cloth and fabric goods, one of the first industries to be mechanized during the Industrial Revolution. |
| transport infrastructure | Systems of roads, canals, and railroads that enable the movement of goods and people necessary for industrial development. |
| transportation systems | Infrastructure and technologies for moving goods and people, including railroads and canals that facilitated industrial expansion. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| automobile industry | The manufacturing sector producing motor vehicles, a major new industry emerging from second-wave industrialization. |
| Bessemer process | A method for mass-producing steel by removing impurities from molten iron, a key innovation of the second industrial revolution. |
| business cycles | Recurring periods of economic expansion and contraction, including booms and recessions, that characterized late 19th-century economies. |
| chemical industry | The manufacturing sector focused on producing chemicals and chemical products, a major new industry of the second industrial revolution. |
| commercialization of agriculture | The transformation of farming from subsistence production to market-oriented production for profit and trade. |
| consumer goods | Products manufactured for purchase by individuals, including clothing, processed foods, and labor-saving devices produced during industrialization. |
| consumerism | The emphasis on the acquisition and consumption of material goods as a central feature of economic and cultural life. |
| department stores | Large retail establishments offering a wide variety of consumer goods, part of mass marketing strategies during industrialization. |
| distribution of goods | The system and process of transporting and delivering products from producers to consumers across regions. |
| electricity | A form of energy harnessed and distributed during the second industrial revolution to power factories and urban infrastructure. |
| factory system | A mode of production in which workers and machines are concentrated in centralized facilities to mass-produce goods. |
| global economic network | An interconnected system of international trade, commerce, and economic relationships linking different regions and nations. |
| government sponsorship | State support and investment in industrial development, as exemplified by Prussia's role in promoting rapid industrialization. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| infant mortality | The death rate of infants and young children, which declined during the industrial period due to improved living conditions and healthcare. |
| innovations | New inventions, methods, or technologies that introduce significant changes to production, transportation, or communication systems. |
| internal combustion engine | An engine that burns fuel internally to produce power, enabling the development of automobiles and other vehicles. |
| leisure opportunities | Recreational and entertainment activities made possible by increased wealth and free time resulting from industrialization. |
| mass marketing | Advertising and sales strategies designed to reach large populations and increase demand for consumer goods. |
| mass production | The manufacture of goods in large quantities using standardized processes and machinery, a defining feature of second-wave industrialization. |
| mechanization | The replacement of manual labor with machines and mechanical processes in production. |
| modes of production | The systems and methods by which goods are manufactured and distributed in an economy. |
| monopolies | Exclusive control of a market or industry by a single corporation or entity, used as a method to manage markets during the second industrial revolution. |
| national economies | Integrated economic systems within a country where regions are connected through trade, transportation, and communication networks. |
| population growth | The increase in the total number of people in a region or society over time. |
| quality of life | The overall standard of living and well-being of a population, including access to goods, services, and improved conditions. |
| railroad | A transportation system using steam-powered locomotives on tracks, essential for moving goods and people during industrialization. |
| second industrial revolution | The period of rapid industrial and technological advancement in the late 19th century, characterized by new industries and innovations like steel, electricity, and chemicals. |
| steamships | Steam-powered vessels that enabled faster, more reliable transportation of troops, goods, and officials across oceans to support imperial expansion. |
| tariffs | Taxes on imported goods used by governments to protect domestic industries and manage markets during the industrial period. |
| technology | Tools, machines, techniques, and systems developed to solve problems and accomplish tasks. |
| telegraph | An electrical communication technology that transmitted messages over long distances, revolutionizing information transfer during industrialization. |
| urbanization | The rapid growth of cities and the movement of populations from rural to urban areas as a result of industrial development. |
| Zollverein | A German customs union that eliminated tariffs between member states, facilitating economic integration and industrialization in Prussia. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural elites | Landowners and nobility in less industrialized regions who maintained economic and political power through control of agricultural production. |
| bourgeoisie | The middle class that emerged during industrialization, consisting of merchants, manufacturers, and professionals who owned capital and means of production. |
| class identity | A sense of shared interests, values, and social position among members of the same economic class. |
| companionate marriage | A marriage based on mutual affection, emotional intimacy, and partnership rather than purely economic necessity. |
| cult of domesticity | An ideology emphasizing women's roles as homemakers and mothers, centered on family life and domestic responsibilities. |
| divisions of labor | The specialization of workers in specific tasks or industries, creating distinct economic roles and social classes. |
| gender roles | Socially defined expectations and behaviors assigned to men and women in society. |
| leisure time | Time available for recreation and activities outside of work and domestic responsibilities. |
| mutual aid societies | Organizations formed by working-class members to provide financial assistance and support to members in times of hardship. |
| nuclear family | A family unit consisting of parents and their children, which was one of several family forms that served as a primary social and economic institution in early modern Europe. |
| overcrowding | The condition of cities receiving excessive population influx, resulting in inadequate housing and sanitation. |
| philanthropic associations | Organizations formed by the middle classes focused on charitable works and social improvement. |
| proletariat | The working class that emerged during industrialization, consisting of laborers who sold their labor for wages. |
| rural to urban migration | The movement of people from countryside agricultural areas to cities seeking industrial employment. |
| social welfare programs | Government initiatives designed to provide assistance and support to improve the quality of life for citizens. |
| socioeconomic changes | Shifts in social structure and economic conditions that alter class relationships and living standards during industrialization. |
| trade unions | Organizations of workers formed to collectively advocate for better wages, working conditions, and labor rights. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Concert of Europe | A system of international diplomacy established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain balance of power and prevent major conflicts among European great powers. |
| Congress System | The diplomatic framework established by the Concert of Europe for resolving international disputes through regular conferences among major European powers. |
| conservatism | A political ideology that emphasizes the preservation of traditional political and religious authorities and opposes rapid social change. |
| European political order | The system of political relationships, power structures, and governance arrangements among European states during the period 1815-1914. |
| human nature | In conservative ideology, the fundamental characteristics of humanity viewed as inherently flawed and not capable of perfection through reform. |
| liberal revolutions | Movements advocating for constitutional government, individual rights, and democratic reforms, which conservatives opposed. |
| nationalist revolutions | Movements seeking to establish independent nation-states or assert national identity, which conservatives attempted to suppress. |
| status quo | The existing state of affairs or current political and social order. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| autocratic | A system of government in which one person holds absolute power without constitutional limits. |
| Concert of Europe | A system of international diplomacy established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain balance of power and prevent major conflicts among European great powers. |
| Decembrist revolt | An 1825 uprising by Russian military officers and intellectuals seeking constitutional reform and the abolition of serfdom. |
| economic hardship | Severe financial difficulties and poverty affecting populations, often triggering social and political unrest. |
| emancipation of the serfs | The freeing of serfs from feudal bondage and obligations to landowners, particularly Alexander II's reforms in Russia. |
| July Revolution | The 1830 revolution in France that overthrew King Charles X and established a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe. |
| Polish rebellion | Uprisings by Polish nationalists against Russian and Prussian rule in the early 19th century. |
| revolutionary movements | Organized efforts by groups seeking to overthrow or fundamentally transform the existing political and social system. |
| revolutions of 1848 | A series of widespread revolutionary uprisings across Europe driven by demands for liberal reforms, national independence, and social change. |
| Russian Revolution of 1905 | A series of strikes, uprisings, and armed rebellion in Russia triggered by military defeat and social discontent, leading to constitutional reforms. |
| status quo | The existing state of affairs or current political and social order. |
| War of Greek Independence | The conflict (1821-1829) in which Greek revolutionaries fought to gain independence from Ottoman rule. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anarchism | A political ideology asserting that all forms of governmental authority are unnecessary and should be replaced with voluntary cooperation. |
| capitalism | An economic system based on private ownership of property, capital accumulation, and market exchange, which Marx and socialists critiqued. |
| citizenship | Full membership in a political community with associated rights and responsibilities. |
| enlightened self-interest | The liberal concept that individuals acting in their own rational self-interest will contribute to the greater good of society. |
| individual rights | Fundamental freedoms and protections belonging to each person, emphasized by liberal thinkers as essential to political society. |
| liberalism | A political ideology emphasizing popular sovereignty, individual rights, and limited government based on enlightened self-interest. |
| Marxist scientific socialism | Marx's systematic critique of capitalism based on historical materialism and the theory of class struggle as the driver of social change. |
| popular sovereignty | The principle that political power ultimately rests with the people, who consent to be governed. |
| radicalism | A political movement demanding fundamental and far-reaching changes to the political system, including universal suffrage and full citizenship rights. |
| redistribution of wealth | The socialist policy of reallocating society's resources and economic goods more equally among its members. |
| republicanism | A political ideology advocating for a form of government without a monarch, based on representation and popular sovereignty. |
| socialism | A political and economic ideology calling for collective or state ownership of resources and the redistribution of wealth to reduce inequality. |
| universal male suffrage | The right of all adult men to vote in political elections, regardless of wealth or property ownership. |
| utopian socialism | Early socialist thought that envisioned ideal, harmonious societies based on cooperative principles rather than systematic economic analysis. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abolitionism | A reform movement dedicated to ending the practice of slavery. |
| feminism | A social and political movement advocating for women's rights, equality, and liberation from gender-based discrimination. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| mass-based political parties | Political organizations with broad popular support that mobilized large segments of society to pursue social, economic, and political change. |
| nongovernmental reform movements | Independent organizations outside government structures that worked to address social problems such as poverty, serfdom, and slavery. |
| serfdom | A system of labor and land tenure in which peasants were bound to the land and owed obligations to noble landowners, codified in eastern Europe during this period. |
| slavery | The practice of holding people as property and forcing them to work without freedom, which abolitionist reform movements worked to eliminate. |
| social reform | Organized efforts to improve social conditions and address problems in society, often in response to industrialization and social inequality. |
| temperance movement | A reform movement that advocated for the reduction or elimination of alcohol consumption to address social problems. |
| trade unions | Organizations of workers formed to collectively advocate for better wages, working conditions, and labor rights. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| compulsory public education | Mandatory schooling provided by the government that all children are required to attend. |
| industrialization | The process of developing industries and manufacturing on a large scale, transforming economies from agrarian to industrial-based production. |
| infrastructure | Basic physical systems and facilities needed for a society to function, such as transportation, water, and sewage systems. |
| interventionist economic and social policies | Government policies that actively regulate and manage economic and social affairs to address problems and promote welfare. |
| laissez-faire | An economic policy in which governments minimize intervention in the economy, allowing market forces to operate freely. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| public health | Government policies and programs designed to protect and improve the health of the population. |
| public housing | Government-provided or subsidized residential accommodations for lower-income populations. |
| public lighting | Street and public illumination systems installed in cities to improve safety and visibility. |
| public transportation | Government-operated or regulated systems for moving people through cities, such as buses, trains, and trams. |
| sewage systems | Infrastructure designed to collect and dispose of wastewater and human waste from cities. |
| urban redesign | The restructuring and reorganization of city layouts and spaces to improve functionality and living conditions. |
| water systems | Infrastructure that supplies clean water to urban populations for drinking, sanitation, and other uses. |