| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Age of Discovery | The period of European exploration and overseas expansion, driven by commercial and religious motives, resulting in encounters with indigenous populations. |
| classical texts | Ancient Greek and Roman literary, philosophical, and scientific works that were recovered and studied during the Renaissance, influencing European intellectual and cultural development. |
| commercial capitalism | An economic system based on trade, merchant activity, and the pursuit of profit through commerce that increasingly shaped European society in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| indigenous populations | Native peoples and societies encountered by Europeans during exploration and expansion, often subjected to conquest and conversion. |
| manor | A medieval agricultural estate that continued to structure rural life and production during the period of economic change. |
| overseas colonies | Overseas territories established and settled by European nations for commercial and religious purposes. |
| political centralization | The concentration of political power and authority in a central government, a process that occurred unevenly across European states in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| Renaissance | A cultural and intellectual movement from the 14th-17th centuries that challenged traditional ideas about education and women's roles in society. |
| scholarship | Academic study and research methods that were transformed by the revival of classical texts during the Renaissance. |
| secular systems of law | Legal systems based on civil authority rather than religious doctrine, which played a central role in the development of new political institutions in the early modern period. |
| sovereign state | A political entity with supreme authority over its territory and population, independent from religious or external control, central to early modern European political development. |
| visual arts | Artistic works such as painting and sculpture that incorporated Renaissance ideas and were used to promote personal, political, and religious goals. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural developments | Changes in farming practices, land use, and production methods in Europe during the period 1450-1648. |
| Bank of Amsterdam | A major financial institution established in the Dutch Golden Age that became a leading European banking center. |
| British East India Company | A trading company chartered by England that played a major role in European commercial expansion and colonial development. |
| capital accumulation | The gathering and concentration of wealth and resources that can be invested in economic expansion and development. |
| commercial developments | Economic changes and innovations in trade, banking, and finance that transformed European economies between 1450 and 1648. |
| commercialization of agriculture | The transformation of farming from subsistence production to market-oriented production for profit and trade. |
| craft guilds | Associations of skilled craftspeople that controlled production, training, and governance in urban trades and challenged by urban migrants. |
| double-entry bookkeeping | An accounting method that records each transaction in two accounts to maintain balanced financial records. |
| Dutch East India Company | A powerful trading company chartered by the Dutch that dominated European commercial expansion in Asia and the Indian Ocean. |
| economic elite | A new social class that gained wealth and power through commercial activities and trade, distinct from traditional land-holding nobility. |
| enclosure movement | The process of consolidating and privatizing agricultural land that had previously been held as common property in villages. |
| European marriage pattern | A demographic pattern in which Europeans delayed marriage and childbearing in response to economic and environmental challenges, restraining population growth. |
| free peasantry | Peasants who were not bound to the land through serfdom and had greater personal freedom and mobility. |
| freehold tenure | A form of land ownership where an individual owns the land outright with no obligations to a landlord. |
| Italian merchant princes | Wealthy and powerful merchant families in Italian city-states who accumulated economic and political influence through trade. |
| Little Ice Age | A period of climate cooling from the late 16th century onward that created economic and environmental challenges for European populations. |
| market economy | An economic system in which goods and services are produced and distributed through supply and demand in competitive markets rather than by state direction. |
| merchant elites | Wealthy merchants and traders who held significant economic and political power in urban centers. |
| money economy | An economic system based on the use of currency and financial instruments rather than barter or direct exchange of goods. |
| nobles of the robe | French nobility who gained status through administrative and judicial positions rather than through military service or ancient lineage. |
| price revolution | A period of significant and sustained increase in prices, particularly for agricultural commodities, during the 16th and early 17th centuries. |
| serfdom | A system of labor and land tenure in which peasants were bound to the land and owed obligations to noble landowners, codified in eastern Europe during this period. |
| subsistence agriculture | Farming primarily for the production of food to meet the needs of the farmer and their family, with little surplus for trade. |
| three-crop field rotation | An agricultural system used in northern Europe where three different crops were rotated across fields to maintain soil fertility. |
| two-crop rotation | An agricultural system used in the Mediterranean region where two different crops were alternated across fields. |
| village common | Land held collectively by a village community and used by villagers for grazing livestock and other shared purposes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Age of Discovery | The period of European exploration and overseas expansion, driven by commercial and religious motives, resulting in encounters with indigenous populations. |
| classical texts | Ancient Greek and Roman literary, philosophical, and scientific works that were recovered and studied during the Renaissance, influencing European intellectual and cultural development. |
| commercial capitalism | An economic system based on trade, merchant activity, and the pursuit of profit through commerce that increasingly shaped European society in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| indigenous populations | Native peoples and societies encountered by Europeans during exploration and expansion, often subjected to conquest and conversion. |
| political centralization | The concentration of political power and authority in a central government, a process that occurred unevenly across European states in the 16th and 17th centuries. |
| Renaissance | A cultural and intellectual movement from the 14th-17th centuries that challenged traditional ideas about education and women's roles in society. |
| secular systems of law | Legal systems based on civil authority rather than religious doctrine, which played a central role in the development of new political institutions in the early modern period. |
| sovereign state | A political entity with supreme authority over its territory and population, independent from religious or external control, central to early modern European political development. |
| visual arts | Artistic works such as painting and sculpture that incorporated Renaissance ideas and were used to promote personal, political, and religious goals. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civic humanist culture | A Renaissance intellectual movement in Italian city-states that applied classical Greek and Roman political ideas to contemporary civic life and governance. |
| classical texts | Ancient Greek and Roman literary, philosophical, and scientific works that were recovered and studied during the Renaissance, influencing European intellectual and cultural development. |
| geometric perspective | A mathematical technique in Renaissance art that creates the illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface through systematic use of vanishing points and proportional lines. |
| Humanist revival | The Renaissance movement that recovered and studied Greek and Roman classical texts, emphasizing human potential and secular knowledge. |
| humanists | Renaissance scholars who focused on studying classical texts, literature, and philosophy to understand human nature and society. |
| individualism | An emphasis on the importance of individual human potential, achievement, and personal development. |
| naturalism | An artistic technique developed during the Renaissance that aimed to represent subjects with realistic detail and accurate observation of the natural world. |
| philological approaches | Methods of textual analysis and interpretation used to study and understand the meaning and authenticity of ancient texts. |
| printing press | A mechanical device invented in the 1450s that enabled the mass production and dissemination of printed texts, revolutionizing the spread of ideas in Europe. |
| Renaissance | A cultural and intellectual movement from the 14th-17th centuries that challenged traditional ideas about education and women's roles in society. |
| secular models | Non-religious frameworks for understanding individual behavior and political organization developed during the Renaissance. |
| secularism | An intellectual perspective that emphasizes worldly concerns and human experience rather than religious or spiritual matters. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Christian humanism | An intellectual movement that combined Renaissance humanist learning and methods with Christian theology and religious reform, exemplified by Erasmus. |
| Erasmus | A Northern Renaissance humanist scholar whose writings employed Renaissance learning to advance religious reform and Christian thought. |
| human-centered naturalism | An artistic approach that depicts individuals and everyday life with realistic detail and human emotion as appropriate subjects for artistic representation. |
| naturalism | An artistic technique developed during the Renaissance that aimed to represent subjects with realistic detail and accurate observation of the natural world. |
| Northern Renaissance | The Renaissance movement as it developed and spread to northern Europe, characterized by a stronger religious focus than the Italian Renaissance. |
| religious focus | The emphasis on Christian themes and spiritual concerns that distinguished the Northern Renaissance from the Italian Renaissance. |
| Renaissance ideas | Intellectual and cultural concepts that emerged during the Renaissance, emphasizing humanism, individualism, and classical learning. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| dissemination | The widespread distribution and spreading of ideas, information, or knowledge to a large audience. |
| national cultures | Distinct cultural identities and traditions that developed within specific nations, often promoted through the use of vernacular languages and local literature. |
| printing press | A mechanical device invented in the 1450s that enabled the mass production and dissemination of printed texts, revolutionizing the spread of ideas in Europe. |
| Renaissance | A cultural and intellectual movement from the 14th-17th centuries that challenged traditional ideas about education and women's roles in society. |
| vernacular literature | Written works composed in native or common languages of a region rather than in Latin, making literature more accessible to ordinary people. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Book of Common Prayer | A liturgical text established by the English monarchy to standardize religious practice and assert royal control over the Church of England. |
| centralized modern state | A political system in which power is concentrated in a central government that controls taxation, military force, justice, and religious authority across a unified territory. |
| commercial and professional groups | Merchants, financiers, and educated professionals who gained increasing political power and influence in European governance during this period. |
| Concordat of Bologna | An agreement between the French monarchy and the Pope that gave the French king control over the appointment of clergy and church revenues in France. |
| Edict of Nantes | A 1598 French royal decree that granted religious toleration to Huguenots while maintaining royal authority over religious matters. |
| monopolies on tax collection | The exclusive right of the monarch to collect taxes, eliminating competing sources of revenue collection. |
| new monarchies | Centralized European states that emerged in the 15th-16th centuries, characterized by strong royal authority and control over taxation, military, justice, and religion. |
| nobles of the robe | French nobility who gained status through administrative and judicial positions rather than through military service or ancient lineage. |
| Peace of Augsburg | A 1555 agreement that allowed German princes to determine the religion of their territories, establishing the principle of cuius regio, eius religio. |
| political fragmentation | The division of a region into multiple independent political units with separate authorities and territories. |
| political institutions | Formal organizations and structures through which political power is exercised and governmental authority is administered. |
| religious reform | Movements to change or purify religious practices and doctrine, particularly within Christianity during the 15th-17th centuries. |
| secular state | A political system in which government authority is based on practical and worldly concerns rather than religious doctrine. |
| Spanish Inquisition | An institution established by Spanish monarchs to enforce religious orthodoxy and control religious life through investigation and punishment of heresy. |
| Star Chamber | An English royal court that served as an instrument of monarchical power to enforce the king's will and control the nobility. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| astrolabe | A navigational instrument used to measure the position of stars and the sun for determining location and direction at sea. |
| cartography | The art and science of making maps, which improved European understanding of world geography during the Age of Exploration. |
| Christianity | A religious faith that served as a motivation and justification for European exploration and the subjugation of indigenous civilizations. |
| compass | A navigational instrument that uses magnetic orientation to determine direction, essential for ocean exploration. |
| gold | A precious metal sought by European states during the Age of Exploration to enhance personal wealth and state power. |
| gunpowder | An explosive powder used in military technology that gave European states a military advantage during exploration and expansion. |
| guns | Firearms and artillery that provided European military superiority during exploration and colonial expansion. |
| indigenous populations | Native peoples and societies encountered by Europeans during exploration and expansion, often subjected to conquest and conversion. |
| lateen rig | A triangular sail configuration that improved ship maneuverability and allowed vessels to sail more effectively against the wind. |
| luxury goods | High-value commodities such as spices, silk, and precious materials that European states sought to obtain for wealth and power. |
| mercantilism | An economic theory and practice that emphasized national wealth accumulation through trade surpluses, colonial expansion, and government regulation of commerce. |
| military technology | Weapons, equipment, and innovations used in warfare, such as machine guns, poison gas, tanks, and aircraft that fundamentally changed combat tactics in World War I. |
| navigation | The science and practice of determining a ship's position and course at sea, essential for long-distance oceanic voyages. |
| overseas colonies | Overseas territories established and settled by European nations for commercial and religious purposes. |
| overseas empires | Territories and colonies established by European powers outside of Europe, used to project power and accumulate wealth through trade and resource extraction. |
| portolani | Medieval nautical charts that mapped coastlines and provided navigational information for maritime exploration. |
| quadrant | A navigational instrument used to measure the altitude of celestial bodies for determining latitude during ocean voyages. |
| spices | Luxury goods from Asia and other regions that European states sought to acquire directly through exploration and trade. |
| sternpost rudder | A navigational technology that improved ship steering and maneuverability during ocean voyages. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Asiento | A contract granting a European power the exclusive right to supply enslaved people to Spanish American colonies. |
| coercion | The use of force or threats to establish European control over overseas territories and populations. |
| colonial expansion | The process by which European nations established settlements, political control, and economic dominance in regions outside of Europe, particularly during the 15th-18th centuries. |
| negotiation | Diplomatic discussions and agreements used by European states to establish colonies and trading networks. |
| overseas empires | Territories and colonies established by European powers outside of Europe, used to project power and accumulate wealth through trade and resource extraction. |
| Seven Years' War | A global conflict (1756-1763) fought between Britain and France in Europe and their colonies, resulting in British dominance. |
| trade networks | Interconnected systems of commercial routes and relationships through which goods, resources, and enslaved persons were exchanged between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. |
| Treaty of Tordesillas | An agreement between Spain and Portugal in 1494 that divided newly discovered lands and colonial territories between the two powers. |
| War of the Spanish Succession | A major European conflict (1701-1714) fought over control of Spanish territories and colonial possessions following the death of the Spanish king. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Atlantic states | European nations with coastlines on the Atlantic Ocean, such as Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Dutch Republic, which became dominant economic powers through colonial expansion. |
| colonial expansion | The process by which European nations established settlements, political control, and economic dominance in regions outside of Europe, particularly during the 15th-18th centuries. |
| Columbian Exchange | The transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between Europe and the Americas beginning in 1492, which created economic opportunities and transformed societies on both sides of the Atlantic. |
| commercial network | An organized system of trading posts and maritime routes established to facilitate the exchange of goods and resources across regions. |
| cultural practices | Customs, traditions, beliefs, and social behaviors characteristic of a particular society or group. |
| diseases | Pathogens and illnesses transmitted between Europe and the Americas during the Columbian Exchange, often with devastating effects on indigenous populations. |
| economic impact | The effect of colonial expansion and trade networks on economic systems, wealth distribution, and commercial activity in Europe and beyond. |
| enslaved persons | Individuals forcibly held in bondage and forced to labor without freedom, a practice that expanded significantly through European colonial trade networks. |
| European dominance | The shift in global economic and political power toward European nations as a result of colonial expansion and control of trade networks. |
| global exchange of goods | The worldwide movement and trade of commodities between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas resulting from colonial expansion. |
| indigenous populations | Native peoples and societies encountered by Europeans during exploration and expansion, often subjected to conquest and conversion. |
| Mediterranean | The sea region that was the center of European economic power before the shift to Atlantic trade in the 15th and 16th centuries. |
| trade networks | Interconnected systems of commercial routes and relationships through which goods, resources, and enslaved persons were exchanged between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. |
| world economy | An interconnected global system of trade and commerce in which regions exchange goods and resources across continents. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| demographic catastrophes | Massive population declines among indigenous peoples in the Americas caused by disease, warfare, and exploitation, which created labor shortages that Europeans sought to fill through the slave trade. |
| Middle Passage | The forced voyage across the Atlantic Ocean that transported enslaved Africans to the Americas, characterized by brutal conditions and high mortality rates. |
| plantation economy | An economic system in the Americas based on large-scale agricultural estates that produced cash crops, particularly sugar, tobacco, and cotton, relying heavily on enslaved labor. |
| planter society | A social and economic structure in the Americas dominated by wealthy plantation owners who held significant political and social power and depended on enslaved labor. |