| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Brexit | Britain's withdrawal from the European Union, representing a member state's decision to leave the union and reassert national sovereignty. |
| Common Market | An economic union characterized by the elimination of trade barriers and the free movement of goods and services among member states. |
| economic integration | The process of combining national economies through trade agreements, shared markets, and coordinated economic policies. |
| euro | The common currency adopted by many EU member states, representing economic integration and a challenge to national monetary sovereignty. |
| European Coal and Steel Community | An economic alliance formed after World War II to coordinate coal and steel production among European nations as a means to promote economic recovery and prevent future conflict. |
| European Economic Community | An economic union established to create a common market among member states, allowing free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor. |
| European identity | A collective sense of belonging and shared values among European peoples, potentially fostered through EU membership and integration. |
| European Parliament | The directly elected legislative body of the European Union that represents EU citizens and creates EU law, representing a supranational authority that affects national governance. |
| European Union | A political and economic union of European countries that expanded to include former Eastern bloc nations after the Cold War. |
| free movement across borders | The EU policy allowing citizens to move, live, and work freely among member states without internal border controls, affecting national immigration and labor policies. |
| national identities | The sense of belonging to a nation, shaped by shared history, language, culture, and political institutions. |
| national sovereignty | The authority and independence of a nation-state to govern itself and make decisions without external interference, which EU member states must balance with union responsibilities. |
| nationalist rivalries | Competitive tensions and conflicts between nations driven by national interests and sovereignty concerns. |
| political integration | The process of unifying political institutions and decision-making structures across multiple states. |
| shared European identity | A collective sense of belonging and common cultural, political, and economic values among European peoples and nations. |
| Transnational union | Political and economic organizations that unite multiple nations across borders, such as the European Union. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anxiety | A pervasive sense of unease and psychological distress that characterized much of 20th-century thought and culture, intensified by the experience of war. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| communist | A political and economic ideology based on collective ownership and the absence of social classes, representing one of the major ideological forces in 20th-century Europe. |
| Democracy | A system of government based on popular sovereignty and representation, representing one of the major ideological forces competing in 20th-century Europe. |
| demographic changes | Shifts in population size, structure, and distribution over time, including changes in birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns. |
| disruptions of traditional social patterns | Breakdown of established social structures and hierarchies caused by war and modernization. |
| Economic collapse | A severe breakdown of economic systems and structures, particularly referring to the Great Depression and post-war economic crises. |
| Economic growth | Expansion of productive capacity and material wealth in European economies during the 20th century. |
| everyday life | The lived experiences and daily realities of ordinary people, altered by demographic, economic, and social changes in 20th-century Europe. |
| Fascism | An authoritarian political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, rejection of democracy, centralized autocratic government, and often the glorification of war and a charismatic leader. |
| freedom and justice | Competing concepts and definitions that shaped political ideologies and social movements in 20th-century Europe. |
| Intellectual and cultural movements | Organized developments in thought, art, and philosophy that questioned traditional assumptions about knowledge, reason, and morality during the 20th century. |
| liberal democratic | A political system based on democratic governance and individual freedoms, as opposed to authoritarian or communist systems. |
| objective knowledge | The philosophical concept that truth and facts exist independently of individual perspectives or beliefs. |
| polarized state order | An international system divided into opposing blocs or ideological camps, as occurred during the Cold War. |
| Political instability | A state of uncertainty and disorder in government and political systems, characterized by weak institutions and frequent changes in power. |
| reason | Rational thought and logical analysis, which Enlightenment thinkers prioritized but Romantic thinkers questioned. |
| relationship between the individual and the state | The fundamental question of how much power the state should have over individuals and their freedoms, a central ideological conflict in 20th-century Europe. |
| total war | A form of warfare in which all of a nation's resources and population are mobilized for the war effort, blurring distinctions between military and civilian targets. |
| Transnational union | Political and economic organizations that unite multiple nations across borders, such as the European Union. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anti-immigrant agitation | Political and social opposition to immigration, including protests and campaigns against immigrants and their presence in a country. |
| extreme nationalist political parties | Political parties that emphasize national identity and sovereignty, often opposing immigration and promoting the interests of native-born citizens. |
| immigration | The process of people moving into a country or region to settle, particularly into Europe after World War II. |
| migrant workers | People who move from their home country to work in another country, often temporarily, such as those from southern Europe, Asia, and Africa who moved to western and central Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. |
| migration | The movement of people from one place to another, particularly within Europe during the post-World War II period. |
| religious makeup | The composition of religious groups and denominations within a population or society. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abortion | The termination of pregnancy, a medical procedure that raised significant social and moral questions. |
| birth control | Medical technologies and methods used to prevent or regulate pregnancy. |
| cultural developments | Changes and evolution in societies' customs, beliefs, arts, and ways of life. |
| fertility treatments | Medical technologies and interventions designed to help individuals or couples achieve pregnancy. |
| genetic engineering | The manipulation of an organism's genetic material using biotechnology to alter inherited traits. |
| innovation | The introduction of new ideas, methods, or technologies that bring about change and advancement. |
| intellectual developments | Advances in thought, ideas, philosophy, and knowledge systems. |
| technology | Tools, machines, techniques, and systems developed to solve problems and accomplish tasks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| communication technologies | Innovations such as telephone, radio, television, computer, cell phone, and internet that enable the transmission of information across distances and connect people globally. |
| consumerism | The emphasis on the acquisition and consumption of material goods as a central feature of economic and cultural life. |
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and integration of economies, cultures, and societies across the world through technology, trade, and communication. |
| Green parties | Political movements in Western and Central Europe that challenged consumerism, promoted sustainable development, and opposed globalization by the late 20th century. |
| popular culture | Mass-produced cultural products and entertainment, including music, film, and consumer goods, that spread across societies and generated both enthusiasm and criticism. |
| sustainable development | Economic and social development that meets present needs without depleting resources or harming the environment for future generations. |
| transportation technologies | Innovations that facilitate the movement of people and goods across space, contributing to increased global connections and the spread of ideas. |
| U.S. technology | American technological innovations and products that were imported into Europe after World War II, contributing to cultural and economic change. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Abstract Expressionism | A mid-20th-century art movement emphasizing spontaneous, gestural abstraction and the artist's emotional expression through non-representational forms. |
| baby boom | A dramatic increase in birth rates following World War II, often promoted by government policies to encourage population growth. |
| Bauhaus | An influential early 20th-century architectural and design movement that combined modernist aesthetics with functional design principles. |
| civil rights movements | Organized social and political movements, including women's movements, gay and lesbian movements, and others, that worked to expand individual rights and freedoms. |
| consumer culture | A society organized around the production and consumption of goods and services, enabled by mass production, new technologies, and increased disposable income, featuring domestic comforts like electricity, indoor plumbing, and synthetic materials. |
| Cubism | An early 20th-century visual art movement that radically shifted aesthetic standards by depicting objects from multiple perspectives simultaneously. |
| Dadaism | An early 20th-century artistic movement characterized by absurdity, irrationality, and anti-art sentiment, often satirizing Western society and its values. |
| existentialism | A philosophical movement emphasizing individual existence, freedom, and responsibility, which gained prominence in post-1945 Europe as a response to the failures of science and reason during world wars and economic depression. |
| Futurism | An early 20th-century artistic movement that celebrated technology, speed, and violence while rejecting traditional aesthetic values. |
| modernism | An intellectual and cultural movement in the late 19th century characterized by rejection of objective knowledge and emphasis on relativism in values. |
| Pop Art | A mid-20th-century artistic movement that incorporated popular culture, mass media, and consumer goods as subjects, often satirizing Western materialism and commercial culture. |
| postmodernism | A cultural and artistic movement that emerged after 1945, characterized by skepticism toward grand narratives and traditional aesthetic standards, often questioning the values and assumptions of modernism. |
| revolts of 1968 | A series of widespread student and youth protests across Europe and the world against perceived bourgeois materialism, decadence, and establishment values. |
| Second Vatican Council | A major reform of the Catholic Church (1962-1965) that redefined church doctrine and practices and began to redefine its relations with other religious communities. |
| Surrealism | A 20th-century artistic movement that explored the subconscious and subjective states through dreamlike imagery and irrational juxtapositions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anxiety | A pervasive sense of unease and psychological distress that characterized much of 20th-century thought and culture, intensified by the experience of war. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| Communism | A political and economic ideology emphasizing collective ownership and state control that competed with democracy and fascism in 20th-century Europe. |
| Democracy | A system of government based on popular sovereignty and representation, representing one of the major ideological forces competing in 20th-century Europe. |
| demographic changes | Shifts in population size, structure, and distribution over time, including changes in birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns. |
| disruptions of traditional social patterns | Breakdown of established social structures and hierarchies caused by war and modernization. |
| Economic collapse | A severe breakdown of economic systems and structures, particularly referring to the Great Depression and post-war economic crises. |
| Economic growth | Expansion of productive capacity and material wealth in European economies during the 20th century. |
| ethnic cleansing | The forced removal or extermination of an ethnic group from a territory, often involving violence, displacement, and systematic persecution. |
| ethnic conflict | Violent or political tensions between different ethnic or cultural groups, often rooted in competition for resources, power, or recognition. |
| Fascism | An authoritarian political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, rejection of democracy, centralized autocratic government, and often the glorification of war and a charismatic leader. |
| freedom and justice | Competing concepts and definitions that shaped political ideologies and social movements in 20th-century Europe. |
| Intellectual and cultural movements | Organized developments in thought, art, and philosophy that questioned traditional assumptions about knowledge, reason, and morality during the 20th century. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements driven by the desire of people sharing a common identity, language, or culture to establish independent nation-states or assert national sovereignty. |
| Political instability | A state of uncertainty and disorder in government and political systems, characterized by weak institutions and frequent changes in power. |
| separatist movements | Political movements seeking to withdraw a region or group from an existing state to form an independent nation or autonomous region. |
| total war | A form of warfare in which all of a nation's resources and population are mobilized for the war effort, blurring distinctions between military and civilian targets. |
| Transnational union | Political and economic organizations that unite multiple nations across borders, such as the European Union. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| consumerism | The emphasis on the acquisition and consumption of material goods as a central feature of economic and cultural life. |
| economic miracle | The period of rapid economic growth in Western and Central Europe following World War II, stimulated by Marshall Plan aid and reconstruction efforts. |
| Marshall Plan | A U.S. economic aid program that provided funds to finance the reconstruction of industry and infrastructure in Western and Central Europe after World War II. |
| reconstruction | The process of rebuilding industry and infrastructure in Europe following World War II. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| arms race | The competitive buildup of military weapons and nuclear arsenals between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| covert actions | Secret military, intelligence, or political operations conducted by Cold War superpowers to advance their interests without public acknowledgment. |
| Iron Curtain | The political and military boundary dividing communist Eastern Europe from democratic Western Europe during the Cold War. |
| Korean War | A limited conflict in Asia (1950-1953) in which the United States and the Soviet Union supported opposite sides, representing Cold War tensions outside Europe. |
| nuclear war | Potential large-scale military conflict involving nuclear weapons, which posed an existential threat during the Cold War. |
| propaganda campaigns | Systematic efforts by Cold War superpowers to spread ideological messages and influence public opinion in support of their respective political systems. |
| Soviet invasion of Afghanistan | A limited conflict in Asia in which the Soviet Union directly intervened, representing Cold War tensions outside Europe. |
| United Nations | An international organization created after World War II to maintain international cooperation and peace among nations. |
| Vietnam War | A limited conflict in Asia in which the United States and the Soviet Union supported opposite sides, representing Cold War tensions outside Europe. |
| Yom Kippur War | A limited conflict in which the United States and the Soviet Union supported opposite sides, representing Cold War tensions outside Europe. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| central planning | An economic system in which the government centrally controls production, distribution, and pricing of goods rather than relying on market forces. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| COMECON | The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the Soviet-led economic organization that coordinated trade and economic policy among communist bloc countries. |
| de-Stalinization | The policy reforms initiated by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev to reduce the repressive practices and cult of personality associated with Stalin's rule. |
| General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade | An international trade agreement established to reduce tariffs and promote free trade among participating nations. |
| geopolitical alliances | Political and military partnerships between nations based on geographic location and shared strategic interests. |
| Hungarian Revolt | The 1956 uprising in Hungary against Soviet control and communist rule, suppressed by Soviet military forces. |
| International Monetary Fund | An international financial organization established to promote monetary cooperation and trade stability among nations. |
| Iron Curtain | The political and military boundary dividing communist Eastern Europe from democratic Western Europe during the Cold War. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| NATO | The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military and political alliance created by Western nations led by the United States to provide collective security against Soviet expansion. |
| Prague Spring | The 1968 reform movement in Czechoslovakia that sought to liberalize communist rule, ended by Soviet military intervention. |
| totalitarian regimes | Authoritarian governments that exercise complete control over all aspects of political, economic, and social life. |
| Warsaw Pact | The military alliance of communist Eastern European countries led by the Soviet Union, created as a counterweight to NATO. |
| World Bank | An international financial institution established to provide loans and development assistance to countries for economic reconstruction and development. |
| World Trade Organization | An international organization that regulates international trade and resolves trade disputes among member nations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| ethnic cleansing | The forced removal or extermination of an ethnic group from a territory, often involving violence, displacement, and systematic persecution. |
| ethnic conflict | Violent or political tensions between different ethnic or cultural groups, often rooted in competition for resources, power, or recognition. |
| Genocide | The deliberate and systematic destruction of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. |
| mass atrocities | Large-scale violent acts committed against civilian populations, often involving systematic killing, torture, or other severe human rights violations. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements driven by the desire of people sharing a common identity, language, or culture to establish independent nation-states or assert national sovereignty. |
| separatist movements | Political movements seeking to withdraw a region or group from an existing state to form an independent nation or autonomous region. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| consumerism | The emphasis on the acquisition and consumption of material goods as a central feature of economic and cultural life. |
| cradle-to-grave social welfare programs | Comprehensive government social services that provide support to citizens from birth through old age, including healthcare, education, and retirement benefits. |
| economic miracle | The period of rapid economic growth in Western and Central Europe following World War II, stimulated by Marshall Plan aid and reconstruction efforts. |
| economic stagnation | A prolonged period of slow or no economic growth, often accompanied by high inflation and unemployment. |
| Marshall Plan | A U.S. economic aid program that provided funds to finance the reconstruction of industry and infrastructure in Western and Central Europe after World War II. |
| welfare state | A system in which the government provides comprehensive social welfare programs and benefits to its citizens, funded through taxation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Berlin Wall | The barrier constructed by East Germany in 1961 that divided Berlin and symbolized the division between communist Eastern Europe and the capitalist West; its fall in 1989 marked a symbolic end to the Cold War. |
| capitalist economies | Economic systems based on private ownership, free markets, and profit motive, as opposed to communist command economies. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until 1991, characterized by tension, proxy wars, and nuclear threat rather than direct military confrontation. |
| Eastern bloc | The communist countries of Eastern Europe under Soviet political and military control during the Cold War. |
| European Union | A political and economic union of European countries that expanded to include former Eastern bloc nations after the Cold War. |
| glasnost | Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of openness and transparency that allowed greater freedom of speech and press in the Soviet Union. |
| hegemonic control | The dominance and influence of one power over others, particularly the Soviet Union's political and military control over Eastern and Central European satellite states. |
| perestroika | Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of restructuring the Soviet economic and political system to make it more efficient and flexible. |
| Soviet Union | The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the communist superpower that existed from 1922 to 1991. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| birth control pill | An oral contraceptive that gave women greater control over reproduction and family planning decisions. |
| feminism | A social and political movement advocating for women's rights, equality, and liberation from gender-based discrimination. |
| legislative representation | The presence and participation of women in government bodies and legislative institutions. |
| professional careers | Skilled occupations and employment opportunities in specialized fields that became increasingly accessible to women in the 20th century. |
| scientific means of fertilization | Technological methods such as in vitro fertilization that allow women to manage reproduction outside of natural conception. |
| Second-wave feminism | A feminist movement primarily from the 1960s-1980s that focused on workplace equality, reproductive rights, and challenging social and cultural norms affecting women. |
| women's suffrage | The right of women to vote, which was achieved in Western Europe through feminist efforts and in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union through government policy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cold War strategic alignments | The geopolitical positioning of nations during the Cold War that influenced the timing and process of decolonization in various territories. |
| decolonization | The process by which colonial territories gained independence from European imperial powers during the 20th and 21st centuries. |
| Indian National Congress | A major political organization in India that led the independence movement against British colonial rule. |
| Indonesian nationalism | The nationalist movement led by Sukarno that sought independence for Indonesia from Dutch colonial rule. |
| National Liberation Front (FLN) | The Algerian independence movement that fought against French colonial control. |
| national self-determination | The principle that peoples have the right to determine their own political status and form of government, promoted by Woodrow Wilson after World War I. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements driven by the desire of people sharing a common identity, language, or culture to establish independent nation-states or assert national sovereignty. |
| Viet Minh | Ho Chi Minh's Vietnamese independence movement that fought against French and later American colonial and military presence. |