| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolutism | A system of government in which a monarch holds complete power and authority, unchecked by laws, institutions, or representative bodies. |
| commercial revolution | The expansion of trade, commerce, and market-based economic activity in Europe during the early modern period, transforming economic structures and social life. |
| empiricism | The philosophical approach that knowledge is derived from sensory experience and observation rather than from innate ideas or authority. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| experimentation | The controlled testing of hypotheses through practical trials, a fundamental method of the Scientific Revolution that replaced reliance on classical authority. |
| mathematics | The use of quantitative and mathematical analysis as a tool in Scientific Revolution science to describe and understand natural phenomena. |
| mercantilism | An economic theory and practice that emphasized national wealth accumulation through trade surpluses, colonial expansion, and government regulation of commerce. |
| natural religion | A religious perspective based on reason and observation of the natural world rather than on revelation or religious doctrine, emphasizing universal principles accessible to all people. |
| observation | The systematic and careful examination of the natural world, a key method in Scientific Revolution science that challenged classical views. |
| rationalism | The philosophical emphasis on human reason and logical thinking as the primary means of understanding the world and solving problems. |
| religious toleration | The acceptance of different religious beliefs and practices, allowing individuals freedom of conscience and worship without persecution. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| skepticism | The philosophical attitude of questioning and doubting established beliefs and authorities, demanding evidence and rational justification. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| alchemy | A medieval and early modern practice that sought to transform base metals into gold and discover the elixir of life, often blending mystical and proto-scientific ideas. |
| astrology | The study of celestial bodies and their supposed influence on human affairs and natural events. |
| deductive reasoning | A method of reasoning that applies general principles or laws to reach specific conclusions. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| experimentation | The controlled testing of hypotheses through practical trials, a fundamental method of the Scientific Revolution that replaced reliance on classical authority. |
| heliocentric view | The astronomical model in which the sun is at the center of the cosmos and planets, including Earth, orbit around it. |
| humoral theory | A traditional medical theory that explained health and disease through the balance of four bodily humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile). |
| inductive reasoning | A method of reasoning that draws general conclusions from specific observations and experimental evidence. |
| natural philosophers | Scholars and thinkers of the early modern period who investigated the natural world through observation and reasoning, precursors to modern scientists. |
| scientific method | A systematic approach to understanding the natural world based on observation, experimentation, mathematics, and logical reasoning. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| academies | Institutions that broadened the audience for new Enlightenment ideas through formal intellectual gatherings and education. |
| atheism | The philosophical position that denies the existence of God or gods. |
| coffeehouses | Public institutions that served as venues for intellectual discussion and the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas. |
| consent of the governed | The principle that legitimate government authority derives from the agreement and acceptance of the people being governed. |
| deism | A philosophical position that believes in God based on reason and observation of nature rather than religious revelation or doctrine. |
| divine right | The traditional political theory that monarchs derive their authority directly from God rather than from the people. |
| empiricism | The philosophical approach that knowledge is derived from sensory experience and observation rather than from innate ideas or authority. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| free market | An economic system in which prices and production are determined by supply and demand with minimal government intervention. |
| free trade | An economic principle advocating the removal of government restrictions on commerce and the exchange of goods between nations. |
| French Revolution | A period of radical social and political upheaval in France (1789-1799) that fundamentally transformed French society and had lasting effects across Europe. |
| Masonic lodges | Organizations that served as institutions for discussing and spreading Enlightenment thought among their members. |
| mercantilism | An economic theory and practice that emphasized national wealth accumulation through trade surpluses, colonial expansion, and government regulation of commerce. |
| natural rights | Fundamental rights believed to belong to all people by virtue of their humanity, not granted by government. |
| Physiocrats | A school of economic thought that challenged mercantilism by emphasizing agriculture and natural economic laws. |
| Pietism | A religious movement emphasizing personal faith and emotional experience, which experienced a revival in Germany during the Enlightenment. |
| rationalism | The philosophical emphasis on human reason and logical thinking as the primary means of understanding the world and solving problems. |
| salons | Institutions, typically hosted in private homes, where intellectuals gathered to discuss and disseminate Enlightenment ideas. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| skepticism | The philosophical attitude of questioning and doubting established beliefs and authorities, demanding evidence and rational justification. |
| social contract | Political theory proposing that individuals agree to surrender some freedoms to a government in exchange for protection of their remaining rights and maintenance of social order. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural productivity | The efficiency and output of farming practices, which increased significantly in the 18th century through improved techniques and technology. |
| Agricultural Revolution | The 18th-century transformation in farming practices and productivity that increased food supply, reduced famines, and enabled population growth. |
| birth control methods | Practices used to limit fertility and family size in some 18th-century European areas. |
| child-rearing | The practices and resources families devoted to raising children, which increased in emphasis and investment during the 18th century. |
| commercial wealth | Economic prosperity generated through trade and commerce, which increased in the 18th century and allowed families to invest more in children and comfort. |
| communal values | Traditional social norms and practices based on community bonds that were eroded by the growth of cities in the 18th century. |
| crime | Illegal activities that increased in visibility in 18th-century cities and prompted greater policing efforts. |
| demographic changes | Shifts in population size, structure, and distribution over time, including changes in birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns. |
| demographic crises | Periods of severe disruption to population stability, such as famines or epidemics, that cause mortality spikes and population decline. |
| European marriage pattern | A demographic pattern in which Europeans delayed marriage and childbearing in response to economic and environmental challenges, restraining population growth. |
| food supply | The availability of food resources to sustain a population, affected by agricultural productivity, transportation, and weather conditions. |
| illegitimate births | Children born outside of marriage, whose rate increased in the 18th century despite the limiting effects of the European marriage pattern. |
| infant and child mortality | The death rate of young children, which decreased significantly in the 18th century and influenced family structure and child-rearing practices. |
| inoculation | A medical technique of deliberately exposing a person to a disease agent to build immunity and reduce mortality from that disease. |
| plague | A devastating epidemic disease that was a major cause of mortality in earlier centuries but declined as a significant threat by the 18th century. |
| population growth | The increase in the total number of people in a region or society over time. |
| poverty | A social condition of economic deprivation that became increasingly visible and recognized as a problem in growing 18th-century cities. |
| private life | The domestic and personal sphere of family life, which received increased emphasis and resources in 18th-century households. |
| prostitution | A social problem that became more visible in growing 18th-century cities and prompted increased efforts to police and control it. |
| rural-to-urban migration | The movement of people from agricultural countryside areas to cities in search of economic opportunities and employment. |
| smallpox | A contagious disease whose mortality rates were significantly reduced in the 18th century through inoculation. |
| transportation | The systems and infrastructure for moving goods, which improved in the 18th century and increased the distribution of food supplies. |
| urbanization | The rapid growth of cities and the movement of populations from rural to urban areas as a result of industrial development. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Baroque art | An artistic style from the 17th and early 18th centuries that emphasized religious feeling and was used by monarchs to demonstrate state power. |
| bourgeois society | The commercial middle-class society whose outlook and values increasingly influenced 18th-century art and literature. |
| censorship | The suppression or control of information, publications, and speech to limit public expression and dissent. |
| consumer revolution | An 18th-century transformation in European society characterized by increased purchasing of new goods for homes and new leisure activities. |
| Enlightenment ideals | 18th-century intellectual principles emphasizing reason, citizenship, and political participation that influenced artistic and cultural movements. |
| leisure activities | New recreational venues and pursuits that emerged in 18th-century Europe as part of the consumer revolution, including coffeehouses, taverns, and theaters. |
| literate public | The growing population of people who could read and access printed materials in 18th-century Europe. |
| Neoclassicism | An 18th-century artistic movement that expressed Enlightenment ideals of citizenship and political participation through a return to classical forms. |
| printed materials | Various forms of published content including newspapers, periodicals, books, and pamphlets that served a growing literate public in the 18th century. |
| privacy | A new concern in 18th-century European culture reflected in home design with private retreats and in literature exploring private emotion. |
| public opinion | Collective views and attitudes of the general population, increasingly shaped by printed materials and literacy in the 18th century. |
| the Encyclopédie | A major 18th-century French publication that compiled knowledge and reflected Enlightenment ideals. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Austria | The central European territory that became the core of Habsburg power after the Peace of Westphalia. |
| civil equality | The granting of equal legal rights and status to all citizens regardless of religion or other characteristics. |
| enlightened absolutism | A form of government in 18th-century Europe where monarchs maintained absolute power while implementing reforms based on Enlightenment principles. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| Habsburgs | A European royal dynasty that ruled the Holy Roman Empire and Austria, shifting their power base eastward after 1648. |
| Holy Roman Empire | A political entity in Central Europe that existed from 962 to 1806, composed of numerous German and Italian states under an elected emperor. |
| Peace of Westphalia | A series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and established the principle of state sovereignty in Europe. |
| Prussia | A German state that rose to major power status in the 17th and 18th centuries, eventually becoming the dominant German power. |
| religious toleration | The acceptance of different religious beliefs and practices, allowing individuals freedom of conscience and worship without persecution. |
| sovereignty | The power of a state to govern itself and make independent decisions without external interference. |
| unified Europe | The concept of European political, religious, or cultural cohesion and integration as a single entity. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolutism | A system of government in which a monarch holds complete power and authority, unchecked by laws, institutions, or representative bodies. |
| commercial revolution | The expansion of trade, commerce, and market-based economic activity in Europe during the early modern period, transforming economic structures and social life. |
| empiricism | The philosophical approach that knowledge is derived from sensory experience and observation rather than from innate ideas or authority. |
| Enlightenment thought | Intellectual movement focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, and rationalism that challenged prevailing patterns of thought regarding social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith. |
| mercantilism | An economic theory and practice that emphasized national wealth accumulation through trade surpluses, colonial expansion, and government regulation of commerce. |
| natural religion | A religious perspective based on reason and observation of the natural world rather than on revelation or religious doctrine, emphasizing universal principles accessible to all people. |
| rationalism | The philosophical emphasis on human reason and logical thinking as the primary means of understanding the world and solving problems. |
| religious toleration | The acceptance of different religious beliefs and practices, allowing individuals freedom of conscience and worship without persecution. |
| Scientific Revolution | A period of European intellectual and cultural change characterized by new scientific methods based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics that challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body. |
| skepticism | The philosophical attitude of questioning and doubting established beliefs and authorities, demanding evidence and rational justification. |