| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| balance of power | A principle of international relations in which no single state or coalition becomes dominant enough to threaten the independence of others, maintained through strategic alliances and territorial arrangements. |
| Concert of Europe | A system of international diplomacy established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain balance of power and prevent major conflicts among European great powers. |
| diplomatic order | A system of international relations and agreements established by major powers to govern their interactions and maintain stability. |
| European global empires | The vast overseas territories and colonies controlled by European powers during the age of imperialism, extending European political and economic dominance worldwide. |
| Great Powers | The major European nations with significant military, economic, and political influence in international affairs, typically including Britain, France, Russia, Prussia/Germany, and Austria. |
| imperialistic sentiments | Attitudes and beliefs supporting the extension of a nation's power and control over other territories and peoples. |
| liberal reforms | Political and social changes aimed at expanding individual rights, representative government, and constitutional limitations on state power. |
| materialism | A philosophical worldview emphasizing material conditions, economic factors, and physical reality as the primary drivers of social and historical change. |
| national unification | The political process of bringing together separate territories or states with shared national identity into a single unified nation-state. |
| nationalist sentiment | The strong identification with and loyalty to one's nation, often driving political movements and international tensions during the 19th century. |
| scientific realism | An intellectual movement emphasizing objective observation, empirical evidence, and material reality rather than idealism or romanticism. |
| second industrial revolution | The period of rapid industrial and technological advancement in the late 19th century, characterized by new industries and innovations like steel, electricity, and chemicals. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| acculturation | The process of adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of another group, in this case Western European society. |
| anti-Semitism | Prejudice, hatred, or discrimination against Jewish people. |
| chauvinism | Extreme and aggressive patriotism or belief in the superiority of one's own nation. |
| dual monarchy | A political system in which two separate kingdoms share a single monarch, as in Austria-Hungary. |
| ethnic minority | A group of people sharing a common culture, language, or ancestry that constitutes a smaller portion of a nation's population. |
| liberal reform | Political and social changes advocated by liberals seeking constitutional government, individual rights, and national self-determination. |
| national aggrandizement | The expansion and increase of a nation's power, territory, or influence. |
| national unification | The political process of bringing together separate territories or states with shared national identity into a single unified nation-state. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| racialism | The belief that human populations can be divided into distinct races with inherent differences, often used to justify nationalist claims. |
| romantic idealism | An emotional and imaginative approach to nationalism that emphasized national character, history, and cultural uniqueness. |
| Zionism | A form of Jewish nationalism advocating for a Jewish homeland, developed in response to European anti-Semitism. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| balance of power | A principle of international relations in which no single state or coalition becomes dominant enough to threaten the independence of others, maintained through strategic alliances and territorial arrangements. |
| Balkan nationalism | The rise of nationalist movements among Balkan peoples seeking independence and self-determination, drawing Great Powers into regional conflicts. |
| Bismarck | Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian statesman who used Realpolitik and military strategy to achieve German unification. |
| Bosnia-Herzegovina annexation crisis | The 1908 international crisis when Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, provoking Serbian and Russian opposition and increasing tensions. |
| Cavour | Camillo Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia whose diplomatic strategies were instrumental in achieving Italian unification. |
| Concert of Europe | A system of international diplomacy established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain balance of power and prevent major conflicts among European great powers. |
| Congress of Berlin | An 1878 international conference that addressed territorial disputes in the Balkans following the Russo-Turkish War. |
| Crimean War | A conflict (1853-1856) between Russia and an alliance of Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France that exposed Ottoman weakness and destabilized the European balance of power. |
| First Balkan War | A 1912-1913 conflict in which Balkan states fought against the Ottoman Empire, destabilizing the region and involving Great Power interests. |
| Garibaldi | Giuseppe Garibaldi, an Italian military leader whose popular campaigns and military victories contributed to Italian unification. |
| German unification | The political and territorial consolidation of German-speaking territories into a single nation-state under Prussian leadership in the 19th century. |
| industrialized warfare | Military conflict characterized by the large-scale use of industrial technology, mass production of weapons, and mechanized military forces. |
| isolating France | Bismarck's diplomatic strategy of using alliances to prevent France from forming powerful alliances against Germany. |
| Italian unification | The political and territorial consolidation of the Italian peninsula into a single nation-state in the 19th century. |
| mutually antagonistic alliances | A system of competing alliance blocs in which member nations are opposed to each other, increasing international tensions. |
| nationalist sentiment | The strong identification with and loyalty to one's nation, often driving political movements and international tensions during the 19th century. |
| Ottoman Empire | The multi-ethnic empire centered in Turkey that controlled much of southeastern Europe, western Asia, and North Africa until its decline in the 19th century. |
| political alliances | Formal agreements between European powers to coordinate foreign policy and military support, used to maintain balance of power. |
| Realpolitik | A political approach based on practical considerations and national interests rather than ideological or moral principles. |
| Reinsurance Treaty | A secret agreement between Germany and Russia signed by Bismarck to maintain friendly relations and prevent Franco-Russian alliance. |
| Second Balkan War | A 1913 conflict among Balkan states over territorial disputes, further destabilizing the region and heightening international tensions. |
| Three Emperors' League | An alliance among the rulers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, formed by Bismarck to maintain stability in Europe. |
| Triple Alliance | An alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, established by Bismarck as part of his system to isolate France. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biological change | The process by which living organisms and species transform and develop over time. |
| Darwin's theories | Charles Darwin's scientific explanations of biological change and evolution, including the theory of natural selection and the development of human beings as a species. |
| natural selection | The mechanism of evolution by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits to offspring. |
| racialist theories | Ideologies based on the belief that human races are fundamentally different and unequal, often used to justify discrimination and social hierarchies. |
| Social Darwinism | A pseudo-scientific ideology that applied evolutionary concepts to human societies, claiming that some races and nations were naturally superior and destined to dominate others. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Freudian psychology | A psychological theory developed by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the role of the irrational mind and the conflict between conscious and subconscious drives in human behavior. |
| modernism | An intellectual and cultural movement in the late 19th century characterized by rejection of objective knowledge and emphasis on relativism in values. |
| Newtonian physics | The classical physics framework developed by Isaac Newton based on the assumption of objective, deterministic laws governing nature. |
| positivism | A philosophical approach that emphasizes science as the only valid source of knowledge, relying on rational and scientific analysis of nature and human affairs. |
| quantum mechanics | A branch of physics developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that challenged Newtonian physics by describing the behavior of matter and energy at atomic scales. |
| relativism | A philosophical position that rejects absolute truths and objective knowledge, emphasizing that values and understanding are relative or subjective. |
| theory of relativity | Einstein's revolutionary theory that challenged Newtonian physics by proposing that space, time, and motion are relative to the observer's frame of reference. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| advanced weaponry | Superior military technology including rifles, machine guns, and ammunition that provided Europeans with military dominance over colonized populations. |
| anesthesia | Medical innovation that prevented pain during surgery, improving survival rates and enabling more effective medical treatment in colonial contexts. |
| antiseptics | Substances used to kill or inhibit microorganisms, reducing infection rates and improving medical outcomes for Europeans in Africa and Asia. |
| breech-loading rifle | A firearm loaded from the rear of the barrel, allowing faster firing rates and giving European soldiers a significant military advantage. |
| communication and transportation technologies | Innovations such as steamships and telegraphs that enabled Europeans to maintain control over vast imperial territories and coordinate colonial administration. |
| cultural superiority | The belief held by European imperialists that their civilization and culture were more advanced and civilized than those of colonized peoples. |
| European national rivalries | Competition and tensions between European nations that motivated them to acquire colonies and expand their global influence and power. |
| germ theory of disease | Louis Pasteur's scientific theory that diseases are caused by microorganisms, leading to improved medical practices that increased European survival in tropical climates. |
| imperialism | The policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, military force, or other means over foreign territories and peoples. |
| machine gun | An automatic weapon capable of rapid continuous fire, providing European forces with overwhelming firepower against colonized peoples. |
| markets for manufactured goods | Overseas territories and populations where European nations could sell their industrial products and expand their commercial influence. |
| Minié ball | A type of bullet used in 19th-century rifles that improved accuracy and firepower for European military forces. |
| Mission civilisatrice | The French concept that European nations had a civilizing mission to bring European culture, religion, and institutions to colonized territories. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and national interests, which emerged as a reaction to Napoleonic expansion. |
| photography | A visual recording technology that documented colonial territories and peoples, supporting imperial knowledge and control. |
| public health projects | Organized medical and sanitation initiatives implemented in colonial territories that improved European health and survival rates. |
| quinine | A drug derived from tree bark that prevented and treated malaria, enabling European survival and settlement in tropical African and Asian regions. |
| racial superiority | The racist ideology used by European imperialists to justify their dominance over non-European peoples based on claims of biological and racial hierarchy. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources extracted from colonies and foreign lands that were used in European commercial and industrial enterprises. |
| Social Darwinism | A pseudo-scientific ideology that applied evolutionary concepts to human societies, claiming that some races and nations were naturally superior and destined to dominate others. |
| steamships | Steam-powered vessels that enabled faster, more reliable transportation of troops, goods, and officials across oceans to support imperial expansion. |
| strategic concerns | Military and geopolitical considerations that influenced European nations' decisions to establish colonies in strategic locations. |
| technological advances | Innovations in weaponry, communication, transportation, and medicine that gave Europeans military, logistical, and health advantages during imperial expansion. |
| telegraph | An electrical communication technology that transmitted messages over long distances, revolutionizing information transfer during industrialization. |
| The White Man's Burden | A concept used to justify European imperialism as a moral duty to civilize and develop non-European territories and peoples. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| alliance systems | Networks of political and military agreements between European powers that were strained by imperial competition. |
| anti-imperialism | Opposition to imperial expansion and colonial control, as articulated by thinkers like J.A. Hobson and Vladimir Lenin. |
| Berlin Conference | A diplomatic meeting held in 1884-1885 where European powers negotiated the partition and colonization of Africa. |
| Boxer Rebellion | An anti-imperialist uprising in China (1899-1901) against foreign imperial powers and their influence. |
| Congo Reform Association | An organization that opposed European imperial abuses and advocated for reform in the Congo. |
| diplomatic tensions | Strained relationships and conflicts between European states resulting from competing imperial interests and rivalries. |
| European imperialism | The extension of European political, economic, and cultural control over non-European territories and peoples during the 19th and early 20th centuries. |
| Fashoda crisis | A diplomatic confrontation in 1898 between France and Britain over control of the Nile Valley in Sudan. |
| imperial encounters | Interactions and contacts between European imperialists and non-European peoples that influenced European culture and society. |
| Indian Congress Party | A nationalist political organization in India that challenged British imperial rule and advocated for Indian independence. |
| Meiji Restoration | Japan's modernization and transformation in the late 19th century that enabled it to resist Western imperialism and become an imperial power itself. |
| Moroccan crises | International diplomatic conflicts in 1905 and 1911 over European imperial interests in Morocco. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements driven by the desire of people sharing a common identity, language, or culture to establish independent nation-states or assert national sovereignty. |
| Pan-German League | A German nationalist organization that advocated for German imperial expansion and influenced imperialism debates in Europe. |
| Sepoy Mutiny | An armed rebellion in 1857 by Indian soldiers (sepoys) against British imperial rule in India. |
| Zulu Resistance | The military and political opposition of the Zulu people against British imperial conquest in South Africa. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abstract art | Art that moves away from recognizable representation to emphasize subjective expression, form, and expressive qualities. |
| Cubism | An early 20th-century visual art movement that radically shifted aesthetic standards by depicting objects from multiple perspectives simultaneously. |
| Impressionism | A modern art movement that moved beyond realistic representation to emphasize subjective perception, light, and color through loose brushwork. |
| materialism | A philosophical worldview emphasizing material conditions, economic factors, and physical reality as the primary drivers of social and historical change. |
| Neoclassical | An artistic style based on classical Greek and Roman forms that emphasized reason, order, and idealized representation. |
| Post-Impressionism | A modern art movement that built upon Impressionism but emphasized subjective expression, form, and symbolic content over accurate representation. |
| Realism | A 19th-century intellectual and artistic movement emphasizing objective observation of reality and rejection of idealization or romanticism. |
| representational art | Art that aims to depict subjects in a recognizable, realistic manner that reflects shared idealized values. |
| Romanticism | An artistic and intellectual movement that emphasized emotion, intuition, nature, individuality, and the supernatural in reaction against Neoclassical rationalism. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| balance of power | A principle of international relations in which no single state or coalition becomes dominant enough to threaten the independence of others, maintained through strategic alliances and territorial arrangements. |
| Concert of Europe | A system of international diplomacy established after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain balance of power and prevent major conflicts among European great powers. |
| diplomatic order | A system of international relations and agreements established by major powers to govern their interactions and maintain stability. |
| European global empires | The vast overseas territories and colonies controlled by European powers during the age of imperialism, extending European political and economic dominance worldwide. |
| Great Powers | The major European nations with significant military, economic, and political influence in international affairs, typically including Britain, France, Russia, Prussia/Germany, and Austria. |
| imperialist movements | Political and economic movements aimed at extending a country's power and control over other territories and peoples, often through colonization and domination. |
| materialism | A philosophical worldview emphasizing material conditions, economic factors, and physical reality as the primary drivers of social and historical change. |
| national unification | The political process of bringing together separate territories or states with shared national identity into a single unified nation-state. |
| nationalist movements | Political movements driven by the desire of people sharing a common identity, language, or culture to establish independent nation-states or assert national sovereignty. |
| Realism | A 19th-century intellectual and artistic movement emphasizing objective observation of reality and rejection of idealization or romanticism. |
| second industrial revolution | The period of rapid industrial and technological advancement in the late 19th century, characterized by new industries and innovations like steel, electricity, and chemicals. |