| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| campaign costs | The total expenses incurred by a campaign, including advertising, staff, and operational expenses. |
| campaign organizations | Structured groups and teams that manage and coordinate activities for a political candidate's election campaign. |
| campaign strategies | Planned approaches and tactics used by campaigns to influence voters and achieve electoral success. |
| canvassing | A campaign tactic involving direct contact with voters, typically door-to-door, to discuss issues and encourage support. |
| election cycles | The period of time from the beginning of campaign activities through the election day and its conclusion. |
| fundraising | The process of collecting money from donors and supporters to finance political campaigns and party operations. |
| phone banking | A campaign tactic in which volunteers make telephone calls to voters to promote a candidate or encourage voter participation. |
| professional consultants | Specialized experts hired by campaigns to provide advice on strategy, messaging, polling, and other aspects of modern elections. |
| social media | Digital platforms that allow users to create, share, and distribute political information and commentary directly to large audiences. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| 14th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including formerly enslaved people. |
| 15th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that granted African American men the right to vote. |
| 17th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that changed the election of Senators from selection by state legislatures to direct election by the people. |
| 19th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that granted women the right to vote. |
| 24th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that eliminated poll taxes as a requirement for voting. |
| 26th Amendment | Constitutional amendment that lowered the voting age to 18 years old. |
| citizenship | Legal status granted to persons born or naturalized in the U.S., which carries rights including the right to vote. |
| poll taxes | A fee or tax that voters were required to pay in order to cast a ballot, which served as a structural barrier to voting. |
| prospective voting | A model of voting behavior in which individuals vote based on their predictions and expectations of how a party or candidate will perform in the future. |
| rational choice voting | A model of voting behavior in which individuals base their voting decisions on what they perceive to be in their own best interest. |
| retrospective voting | A model of voting behavior in which individuals decide whether to reelect the party or candidate in power based on their recent performance and record. |
| straight ticket voting | A voting behavior in which individuals vote for all candidates from a single political party on a ballot. |
| voting rights protections | Legal safeguards established in the Constitution and legislation that guarantee citizens' ability to participate in elections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| attack ads | Political advertisements that criticize or attack an opponent rather than promote a candidate's own positions. |
| Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 | Federal legislation designed to regulate campaign finance by banning soft money contributions and requiring candidates to approve their own advertisements. |
| campaign contributions | Money donated by individuals, organizations, and political parties to support candidates and political campaigns. |
| campaign finance | The money raised and spent by candidates, political parties, and interest groups to support political campaigns and elections. |
| First Amendment | The constitutional amendment that protects fundamental freedoms including religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition. |
| political action committees (PACs) | Organizations that raise and spend money to support or oppose political candidates and causes, subject to federal contribution limits. |
| political parties | Organizations that seek to influence government policy and elect candidates to office by mobilizing voters around shared ideological positions. |
| protected speech | Expression and communication that is safeguarded by the First Amendment and cannot be restricted by the government. |
| soft money | Unregulated campaign contributions to political parties that are not subject to federal contribution limits, often used for party-building activities. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agenda setting | The media's power to influence which political issues and events the public considers important by deciding what to cover and how prominently to feature it. |
| election coverage | Media reporting on candidates, campaigns, and electoral processes during political elections. |
| horse race | Media coverage of elections that emphasizes competition and popularity polls rather than substantive discussion of candidates' qualifications and policy platforms. |
| investigative journalism | In-depth reporting by journalists that uncovers and exposes political wrongdoing, corruption, or matters of public interest. |
| linkage institution | An organization or mechanism that connects citizens to the political system and influences the political process, such as the media. |
| new communication technologies | Digital platforms and tools that enable the distribution and consumption of political information outside traditional media channels. |
| political commentary | Analysis and opinion-based discussion of political events, policies, and issues presented through media outlets. |
| polling results | Data collected from surveys measuring public opinion on political candidates, issues, and levels of trust in government. |
| social media | Digital platforms that allow users to create, share, and distribute political information and commentary directly to large audiences. |
| traditional news media | Established news outlets such as newspapers, television, and radio that have historically been the primary sources of political information for citizens. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| consumer-driven media outlets | Media organizations that prioritize audience preferences and market demand in determining what content to produce and distribute. |
| credibility of news sources | The trustworthiness and reliability of media outlets in accurately and fairly reporting information and events. |
| emerging technologies | New communication platforms and tools that create additional channels for distributing political information and news content. |
| ideologically oriented programming | Media content deliberately designed to appeal to and reinforce the political beliefs and values of a specific audience segment. |
| media bias | The perceived or actual slant in news coverage and analysis based on the ideological preferences of media outlets or journalists. |
| media ownership | The concentration of control over media outlets and communications platforms by specific corporations, individuals, or entities. |
| partisan news sites | Media outlets that explicitly favor or promote the views and interests of a particular political party or ideology. |
| political institutions | The formal structures and organizations through which political power is exercised, including government branches, legislatures, and regulatory bodies. |
| political knowledge | Citizens' understanding of political processes, institutions, issues, and current events necessary for informed participation in democracy. |
| political participation | Citizen engagement in the political process, including voting, activism, and other forms of involvement in democratic governance. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absentee voting | A method of voting that allows individuals to cast ballots before election day without being physically present at the polling place. |
| demographic characteristics | Statistical characteristics of populations, such as age, gender, race, ethnicity, and religious affiliation, that can influence voter behavior and turnout. |
| early voting | A voting method that allows eligible voters to cast their ballots before the official election day. |
| ideological orientation | A voter's position on the political spectrum, ranging from liberal to conservative, which shapes their policy preferences and voting decisions. |
| midterm elections | Elections held every two years between presidential elections in which voters elect members of Congress and other state and local officials, typically generating lower voter turnout than presidential elections. |
| party identification | A voter's psychological attachment to and loyalty to a political party, which influences voting behavior and political choices. |
| political efficacy | The belief that an individual's participation in the political process will make a difference in election outcomes. |
| presidential elections | National elections held every four years in which voters choose the President and Vice President of the United States, typically generating higher voter turnout than midterm elections. |
| structural barriers | Obstacles in the voting process, such as polling hours, availability of absentee ballots, and voter ID requirements, that can affect voter turnout. |
| Voter ID laws | State regulations requiring voters to present identification documents at polling places to verify their eligibility to vote. |
| voter registration laws | State regulations that establish procedures and requirements for individuals to register to vote, including in-person, online, or automatic registration options. |
| voting by mail | A voting method in which ballots are sent to voters by mail, allowing them to vote from home and return ballots by mail or in person. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| campaign management | The coordination of activities and resources to promote a candidate's election, including strategy, messaging, and voter outreach. |
| candidate recruitment | The process by which political parties identify, evaluate, and encourage individuals to run for elected office. |
| committee systems | The organizational structure of legislative committees led by party members who manage legislative priorities and assignments. |
| elections | Formal processes through which citizens select candidates for public office. |
| electorate | The body of voters eligible to participate in elections. |
| fundraising | The process of collecting money from donors and supporters to finance political campaigns and party operations. |
| interest groups | Organizations formed by individuals with shared interests or concerns that seek to influence public policy outcomes. |
| linkage institutions | Channels through which individuals communicate their preferences and interests to policymakers. |
| media | Channels of communication that inform the public about political issues and candidates. |
| media strategy | The planned use of television, radio, digital, and print media to communicate a candidate's or party's message to voters. |
| mobilization | The process of organizing and activating voters to participate in the political process and support party candidates. |
| party leadership | The elected or appointed officials who direct party operations and strategy within legislative bodies. |
| party platforms | The set of principles, policies, and positions that a political party officially adopts and promotes. |
| political parties | Organizations that seek to influence government policy and elect candidates to office by mobilizing voters around shared ideological positions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| campaign finance law | Legislation that regulates the raising and spending of money in political campaigns, influencing how parties structure and operate. |
| candidate-centered campaigns | Electoral campaigns that focus on the personal characteristics, qualities, and appeal of individual candidates rather than on party platforms or party identity. |
| critical elections | Elections in which there is a significant realignment of political party support among voters, often marking a shift in which groups support which parties. |
| demographic coalitions | Groups of voters defined by shared characteristics such as age, race, ethnicity, income, or education that parties seek to attract and mobilize. |
| mobilization | The process of organizing and activating voters to participate in the political process and support party candidates. |
| political messaging | The communication strategies and content that political parties develop and disseminate to convey their positions and appeal to voters. |
| realignment | A significant and lasting shift in which demographic groups support which political parties, often occurring during critical elections. |
| voter data management | The collection, analysis, and use of voter information to identify, target, and mobilize specific groups of voters for political campaigns. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| independent candidate | A candidate who runs for office without affiliation to a major political party. |
| party platforms | The set of principles, policies, and positions that a political party officially adopts and promotes. |
| proportional systems | Electoral systems in which political parties receive representation proportional to the number of votes they receive. |
| structural barriers | Obstacles in the voting process, such as polling hours, availability of absentee ballots, and voter ID requirements, that can affect voter turnout. |
| third-party | A political party other than the two major parties (Democrats and Republicans) in the U.S. political system. |
| two-party system | A political system dominated by two major political parties that compete for power. |
| winner-take-all voting | An electoral allocation method where the candidate who wins the most votes in a state receives all of that state's electoral votes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| access | The ability of interest groups to gain direct contact and communication with important policymakers and government officials. |
| amicus curiae brief | A written document submitted to a court by a 'friend of the court' (typically an interest group) to provide additional information for judicial consideration in a case. |
| elections | Formal processes through which citizens select candidates for public office. |
| financial reserves | Money accumulated by interest groups that can be used to fund campaigns, lobbying efforts, and political activities. |
| free riders | Individuals who benefit from the work and advocacy of an interest group without contributing financially or materially to the group. |
| influence | The ability of interest groups to affect government decisions, elections, and policymaking processes. |
| interest groups | Organizations formed by individuals with shared interests or concerns that seek to influence public policy outcomes. |
| iron triangles | A three-way relationship between interest groups, government agencies, and legislative committees that work together to influence policy in a specific area. |
| issue networks | Loose coalitions of interest groups, government officials, and other stakeholders who share interest in a particular policy issue and work across party lines. |
| lobbying | The practice of seeking to influence legislators and government officials on specific policy issues. |
| mobilize | The ability of interest groups to organize and activate their members to take political action. |
| policymaking | The process of developing and implementing government policies; a primary area where interest groups seek to exert influence. |
| resources | Assets possessed by interest groups, including membership size, financial reserves, and access to policymakers, that enable them to influence the political process. |
| selective benefits | Goods and services provided exclusively to members of an interest group to encourage membership and overcome the free rider problem. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agencies | Federal organizations responsible for implementing and enforcing laws and policies in specific areas of government responsibility. |
| federal budget process | The governmental procedure through which competing political actors influence the allocation of federal spending and revenues. |
| ideological movements | Organized efforts by groups of people united by shared political beliefs or values to influence society and policy outcomes. |
| interest groups | Organizations formed by individuals with shared interests or concerns that seek to influence public policy outcomes. |
| professional organizations | Groups representing members of a specific profession or occupation that work to influence policies affecting their field. |
| protest movements | Organized collective actions by groups expressing opposition to government policies or societal conditions to influence policymaking. |
| realignment | A significant and lasting shift in which demographic groups support which political parties, often occurring during critical elections. |
| single-issue groups | Political organizations formed around one specific policy concern with the goal of influencing policymaking on that particular issue. |
| social movements | Broad-based organized efforts by groups seeking social or political change to affect society and policymaking. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| caucus | A local meeting where party members gather to discuss candidates and select delegates to represent them at higher-level party conventions. |
| closed primary | A primary election in which only registered members of a political party are allowed to vote. |
| Electoral College | The system by which the president is elected through votes cast by electors from each state, rather than through a direct popular vote. |
| electors | Representatives from each state who cast votes in the Electoral College to determine the president. |
| general election | The election held to determine which candidates will hold public office, occurring in November in even-numbered years. |
| incumbency advantage | The electoral advantage held by current office holders due to factors such as name recognition, fundraising ability, and constituent service. |
| open primary | A primary election in which voters do not need to be registered members of a political party to participate. |
| party convention | A formal gathering of party delegates to nominate the party's presidential candidate and establish the party platform. |
| popular vote | The total number of votes cast by individual voters in a presidential election nationwide. |
| winner-take-all voting | An electoral allocation method where the candidate who wins the most votes in a state receives all of that state's electoral votes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| caucus | A local meeting where party members gather to discuss candidates and select delegates to represent them at higher-level party conventions. |
| closed primary | A primary election in which only registered members of a political party are allowed to vote. |
| general election | The election held to determine which candidates will hold public office, occurring in November in even-numbered years. |
| incumbency advantage | The electoral advantage held by current office holders due to factors such as name recognition, fundraising ability, and constituent service. |
| midterm elections | Elections held every two years between presidential elections in which voters elect members of Congress and other state and local officials, typically generating lower voter turnout than presidential elections. |
| open primary | A primary election in which voters do not need to be registered members of a political party to participate. |
| presidential elections | National elections held every four years in which voters choose the President and Vice President of the United States, typically generating higher voter turnout than midterm elections. |