| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bicameral | A legislative system divided into two separate chambers or houses, designed to balance representation and create checks on legislative power. |
| enumerated powers | Specific powers explicitly granted to Congress in the Constitution, such as taxation, declaring war, and regulating interstate commerce. |
| implied powers | Powers of Congress that are not explicitly stated in the Constitution but are derived from the necessary and proper clause to carry out enumerated powers. |
| interstate commerce | Trade and economic activity that occurs between different states, which Congress has the power to regulate. |
| naturalization | The legal process by which a foreign-born person becomes a citizen of the United States. |
| Necessary and Proper Clause | A constitutional provision that grants Congress the authority to enact legislation needed to carry out its enumerated powers. |
| oversight | The authority of Congress to review, monitor, and supervise the actions of executive branch agencies to ensure they implement legislation as intended. |
| republicanism | The democratic principle that the will of the people is reflected in government through the decisions and debates of their elected representatives. |
| two-party system | A political system dominated by two major political parties that compete for power. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| controversial decisions | Court rulings that generate significant public debate or disagreement due to their legal or political implications. |
| judicial independence | The principle that courts operate free from interference or pressure from the other branches of government. |
| life tenure | The permanent appointment of Supreme Court justices that allows them to serve until death or voluntary retirement, providing job security independent of political pressures. |
| Supreme Court's power | The authority and influence of the Supreme Court to interpret the Constitution and make binding legal decisions that affect the nation. |
| unpopular decisions | Court rulings that are opposed by a majority of the public or political actors. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Amendments | Formal changes or additions to the Constitution. |
| case precedent | A court decision or ruling that serves as an authoritative example or rule for future cases with similar facts and legal issues. |
| Congressional legislation | Laws passed by Congress that can modify or override the effects of Supreme Court decisions. |
| Constitutional precedent | Previously established interpretations of the Constitution that guide judicial decision-making. |
| Court-packing plan | A proposal to increase the number of Supreme Court justices to change the ideological composition of the Court. |
| Ideological balance | The distribution of judicial philosophies or political perspectives among Supreme Court justices that can shift based on new appointments. |
| Implementation of Supreme Court decisions | The process by which the president and states carry out or enforce Supreme Court rulings, which they can delay or obstruct. |
| judicial activism | A judicial philosophy asserting that courts may use judicial review to overturn current Constitutional and case precedent or invalidate legislative or executive acts. |
| Judicial appointments | The president's power to nominate judges to federal courts, which provides long-lasting influence through life-tenured positions. |
| judicial restraint | A judicial philosophy asserting that courts should limit the use of judicial review to decisions that adhere to current Constitutional and case precedent. |
| judicial review | The power of the courts to examine laws and executive actions and declare them unconstitutional if they violate the Constitution. |
| Jurisdiction | The authority of the Supreme Court to hear and decide cases; Congress can limit this by removing certain types of cases from the Court's appellate jurisdiction. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agencies | Federal organizations responsible for implementing and enforcing laws and policies in specific areas of government responsibility. |
| bureaucracy | The system of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement federal policy and carry out the responsibilities of the federal government. |
| civil service | The system of federal employees hired and promoted based on merit, professionalism, and specialization rather than political appointment. |
| commissions | Federal bodies typically composed of appointed officials that regulate specific industries or policy areas and enforce compliance. |
| departments | Major organizational units of the federal bureaucracy responsible for implementing policy in specific areas such as defense, state, or education. |
| government corporations | Federal organizations that operate like private businesses to provide services or manage resources on behalf of the government. |
| iron triangles | A three-way relationship between interest groups, government agencies, and legislative committees that work together to influence policy in a specific area. |
| issue networks | Loose coalitions of interest groups, government officials, and other stakeholders who share interest in a particular policy issue and work across party lines. |
| merit system | A hiring and promotion system based on qualifications, professionalism, specialization, and neutrality rather than political connections. |
| political patronage | The practice of appointing bureaucratic positions based on political loyalty and connections rather than merit and qualifications. |
| regulations | Rules established by federal agencies that have the force of law and specify how laws and policies will be implemented and enforced. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agencies | Federal organizations responsible for implementing and enforcing laws and policies in specific areas of government responsibility. |
| bureaucracy | The system of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement federal policy and carry out the responsibilities of the federal government. |
| delegated discretionary authority | Power granted by Congress to federal agencies to make decisions and take actions within their jurisdiction without specific legislative direction for each situation. |
| discretionary power | The authority granted to federal agencies to make independent decisions and judgments in interpreting and implementing policies within their area of responsibility. |
| regulations | Rules established by federal agencies that have the force of law and specify how laws and policies will be implemented and enforced. |
| rulemaking | The process by which federal bureaucratic agencies create and establish regulations to implement laws and policies. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bureaucracy | The system of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement federal policy and carry out the responsibilities of the federal government. |
| check of executive authorization | Congressional oversight mechanisms that limit and constrain the President's power to direct executive branch actions. |
| compliance monitoring | The process of overseeing and verifying that executive agencies are using funds appropriately and following established regulations. |
| executive branch | The branch of government responsible for enforcing and administering laws, headed by the President. |
| executive branch agencies | Federal departments and independent agencies that implement and enforce laws under the president's authority. |
| investigation and committee hearings | Congressional procedures for examining bureaucratic activity through formal inquiries and testimony before legislative committees. |
| oversight | The authority of Congress to review, monitor, and supervise the actions of executive branch agencies to ensure they implement legislation as intended. |
| policy implementation | The process of executing and carrying out policies and programs established by the administration. |
| power of the purse | Congress's authority to check the bureaucracy by controlling the appropriation or withholding of funds for federal agencies. |
| presidential authority | The constitutional and statutory powers granted to the president to direct and control executive branch operations. |
| presidential ideology | The set of political beliefs and values that guide a president's policy decisions and administrative priorities. |
| presidential influence | The president's ability to persuade and direct executive branch agencies to align with administration goals. |
| review, monitoring, and supervision | Congressional methods of examining bureaucratic agencies' activities to ensure compliance with legislative intent. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| accountability | The requirement that government officials and agencies be responsible for their actions and answerable to other branches of government and the public. |
| bureaucracy | The system of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement federal policy and carry out the responsibilities of the federal government. |
| competing interests | Conflicting goals and priorities among different branches of government that may limit their ability to work together on oversight. |
| distribution of powers | The allocation of governmental authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches as established by the Constitution. |
| formal powers | Constitutional or statutory powers explicitly granted to the president by law or the Constitution. |
| informal powers | Powers exercised by the president that are not explicitly granted by the Constitution or law, based on custom, persuasion, or political influence. |
| legislative veto | The power of Congress to reject or overturn executive branch actions or regulations. |
| policymaking | The process of developing and implementing government policies; a primary area where interest groups seek to exert influence. |
| sharing of powers | The constitutional system in which governmental authority is divided among the three branches, requiring cooperation and compromise in policymaking. |
| stakeholders | Individuals, groups, or organizations that have an interest in or are affected by government policy decisions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bills | Proposed legislation that is introduced in Congress for consideration and potential passage into law. |
| budget | Congress's annual financial plan that allocates funds for mandatory and discretionary spending programs. |
| budget deficit | The shortfall that occurs when government spending exceeds tax revenues. |
| calendar assignment | The process of scheduling bills for consideration and debate in a legislative chamber. |
| cloture | A Senate procedure that ends debate and forces a vote on a bill, typically requiring a supermajority of senators. |
| Committee of the Whole | A procedural mechanism in the House that allows all members to participate in debate on a bill to expedite the legislative process. |
| committees | Specialized groups of legislators within Congress that conduct hearings, debate, and review bills before they are considered by the full chamber. |
| conference committee | A joint committee formed to reconcile differences between versions of a bill passed by both chambers of Congress. |
| discharge petition | A procedure that allows individual House members to bring a bill to the floor for debate without committee approval. |
| discretionary spending | Government spending approved annually by Congress for programs such as defense, education, and infrastructure. |
| entitlement programs | Government benefit programs that provide payments to individuals who meet specified eligibility requirements, such as Social Security and Medicare. |
| filibuster | A Senate tactic in which a senator prolongs debate to delay or prevent a vote on a bill. |
| hold | A Senate procedure that allows a senator to request a delay or prevention of a bill from reaching the floor for a vote. |
| logrolling | The practice of legislators exchanging political favors, such as trading votes, to gain support for legislation. |
| majority political party | The political party with the most members in a legislative chamber, which determines committee leadership. |
| mandatory spending | Government spending required by law for entitlement programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid. |
| markup | The process by which a committee revises and adds amendments to a bill before recommending it to the full chamber. |
| policymaking process | The series of steps and procedures through which Congress develops, debates, and enacts legislation into law. |
| pork-barrel legislation | Funding for local projects included in larger appropriation bills, often used to benefit a legislator's district. |
| revenue bills | Legislation that raises taxes or generates government income, which must originate in the House of Representatives. |
| rider amendments | Amendments added to bills that are often unrelated to the original bill's purpose. |
| Rules Committee | The House committee that establishes the rules and procedures for debate on bills in the House chamber. |
| Speaker | The elected leader of the House of Representatives who presides over legislative work and is chosen by a majority of House members. |
| unanimous consent | A Senate procedure for bringing bills to the floor for consideration when all senators agree to proceed without objection. |
| whips | Party leaders in Congress responsible for ensuring party members are present for votes and supporting party positions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| delegate | A representative role conception in which a member of Congress sees themselves as an agent of those who elected them and votes based on constituent interests. |
| divided government | A situation in which one party controls the presidency and the other party controls at least one of the chambers of Congress. |
| gerrymandering | The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one political party or group. |
| gridlock | A situation in which no congressional action on legislation can be taken due to a lack of consensus among members. |
| lame duck president | A president in their final term or final period of office who has limited political power and influence. |
| partisan voting | When members of Congress vote based on their political party affiliation rather than other considerations. |
| polarization | A situation in which political attitudes move toward ideological extremes, creating greater distance between opposing viewpoints. |
| politico | A representative role conception that combines elements of both the trustee and delegate approaches to voting. |
| redistricting | The process of redrawing electoral district boundaries, typically following the decennial census. |
| trustee | A representative role conception in which a member of Congress votes based on their own knowledge and judgment rather than constituent preferences. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bargaining and persuasion | Informal powers through which the president negotiates with Congress and uses political influence to secure legislative action. |
| Cabinet | The group of department heads and other officials who advise the president and help implement the policy agenda. |
| commander-in-chief | The formal power of the president to serve as the supreme military authority and direct military operations. |
| executive agreements | Informal agreements between the president and foreign nations that do not require Senate ratification and represent an informal foreign policy power. |
| Executive Office of the President | The administrative organization that supports the president in implementing policy and managing the federal government. |
| executive orders | Formal directives issued by the president to manage the federal government and implement policy, derived from constitutional executive power or delegated congressional authority. |
| formal powers | Constitutional or statutory powers explicitly granted to the president by law or the Constitution. |
| informal powers | Powers exercised by the president that are not explicitly granted by the Constitution or law, based on custom, persuasion, or political influence. |
| pocket veto | A formal presidential power to reject legislation by not signing it when Congress is not in session, which cannot be overridden by Congress. |
| policy agenda | A set of policy priorities and goals that a president seeks to accomplish during their term in office. |
| signing statements | Informal written statements issued by the president when signing legislation to communicate their interpretation of the law to Congress and the public. |
| treaties | Formal agreements between the United States and foreign nations that require Senate ratification and represent a formal presidential foreign policy power. |
| veto | The president's formal power to reject legislation passed by Congress, which can be overridden by a 2/3 vote in both chambers. |
| Vice President | The second-ranking executive official who supports the president in accomplishing the policy agenda. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ambassadors | Diplomatic representatives appointed by the president to represent the United States in foreign countries, requiring Senate confirmation. |
| appointment powers | The president's authority to select and nominate individuals to fill positions in the executive and judicial branches, subject to Senate confirmation. |
| Cabinet members | Heads of executive departments who advise the president and lead federal agencies, requiring Senate confirmation. |
| congressional agenda | The formal list of policies and legislation that Congress is considering at any given time. |
| Court of Appeals judges | Federal judges appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate to serve on appellate courts. |
| District Court judges | Federal judges appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate to serve on trial courts. |
| Executive Office of the President | The administrative organization that supports the president in implementing policy and managing the federal government. |
| executive orders | Formal directives issued by the president to manage the federal government and implement policy, derived from constitutional executive power or delegated congressional authority. |
| Judicial appointments | The president's power to nominate judges to federal courts, which provides long-lasting influence through life-tenured positions. |
| president's agenda | The set of policy priorities and goals that the president seeks to accomplish during their administration. |
| Senate confirmation | The process by which the Senate must approve presidential appointments to certain positions, serving as a check on presidential power. |
| Supreme Court Justices | Members of the highest federal court appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, serving life tenure. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| expansion of presidential power | The historical trend of presidents interpreting and exercising their powers more broadly than originally intended, leading to increased executive authority. |
| Federalist No. 70 | A Federalist Paper written by Alexander Hamilton that argues for a strong, unitary executive as necessary for national defense, law enforcement, property protection, and liberty. |
| formal powers | Constitutional or statutory powers explicitly granted to the president by law or the Constitution. |
| informal powers | Powers exercised by the president that are not explicitly granted by the Constitution or law, based on custom, persuasion, or political influence. |
| presidential term limits | Constitutional restrictions on the number of terms a president may serve, established by the Twenty-Second Amendment to prevent excessive accumulation of executive power. |
| Twenty-Second Amendment | A constitutional amendment that established a two-term limit for the presidency, enacted in response to concerns about the expansion of presidential power. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agenda setting | The media's power to influence which political issues and events the public considers important by deciding what to cover and how prominently to feature it. |
| bully pulpit | The president's platform and ability to use the office and media attention to influence public opinion and promote policies. |
| communication technology | Tools and platforms used by the president to communicate with the public, including modern media such as social media and broadcast television. |
| national constituency | The entire population of voters and citizens that a president represents and communicates with. |
| social media | Digital platforms that allow users to create, share, and distribute political information and commentary directly to large audiences. |
| State of the Union | An annual nationally broadcast address delivered by the president to Congress and the nation to report on the state of the country and set the legislative agenda. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Article III | The section of the U.S. Constitution that establishes the judicial branch and defines the structure and powers of the federal court system. |
| checks and balances | The system of constitutional provisions that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches, preventing any single branch from becoming too powerful. |
| Federalist No. 78 | An essay by Alexander Hamilton that explains and defends the independence of the judicial branch and its role in checking the power of other branches. |
| judicial independence | The principle that courts operate free from interference or pressure from the other branches of government. |
| judicial review | The power of the courts to examine laws and executive actions and declare them unconstitutional if they violate the Constitution. |
| separation of powers | The constitutional principle that divides the federal government into three branches—legislative, executive, and judicial—each with distinct powers and responsibilities. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| case precedent | A court decision or ruling that serves as an authoritative example or rule for future cases with similar facts and legal issues. |
| judicial decision making | The process by which judges and courts interpret law and reach decisions in cases brought before them. |
| stare decisis | The legal doctrine under which courts follow and uphold legal precedents when deciding cases with similar facts. |