| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural innovation | New techniques, tools, or methods that improved farming productivity and output. |
| artisanal labor | Skilled manual work performed by craftspeople producing goods by hand. |
| branches of Buddhism | Different schools and interpretations of Buddhist teachings that developed and spread across Asia, such as Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism. |
| Buddhism | A major world religion and philosophical tradition that spread throughout Asia via trade networks. |
| Chinese cultural traditions | The customs, beliefs, practices, and values that originated in China and were transmitted across generations and to neighboring regions. |
| commercialized economy | An economy increasingly based on buying and selling goods through markets and trade rather than subsistence or barter. |
| Confucianism | A philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius that emphasized social hierarchy, filial piety, and proper conduct, used by Chinese dynasties to justify their rule. |
| imperial bureaucracy | A centralized system of government administration used by empires like the Song Dynasty to organize and control state functions. |
| manufacturing innovation | New techniques, tools, or methods that improved the production of goods and crafted items. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| peasant labor | Work performed by rural agricultural workers whose labor intensified to meet increased demand for food and goods in expanding trade networks. |
| productive capacity | The ability of a society or region to produce goods, which increased due to expanded trade networks and technological innovations. |
| Song China | A Chinese dynasty that ruled from 960-1279 CE and utilized Confucianism and imperial bureaucracy to maintain its authority. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Abbasid Caliphate | The Islamic empire that ruled from the 8th to 13th centuries; its fragmentation in the 12th-13th centuries led to the emergence of new Islamic political entities. |
| advances in literature | Literary innovations and creative works produced by Islamic scholars and writers. |
| advances in mathematics | Mathematical innovations and developments made by Islamic scholars that contributed to the advancement of the discipline. |
| advances in medicine | Medical innovations and improvements in medical knowledge developed by Islamic physicians and scholars. |
| belief systems | Organized sets of religious and philosophical ideas that shape the values, practices, and social structures of societies. |
| Christianity | A monotheistic religion whose core beliefs and practices shaped societies in Africa and Asia during the period from 1200-1450. |
| Dar al-Islam | The Islamic world or the lands under Islamic rule and cultural influence. |
| Delhi sultanates | Muslim sultanates that ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent, establishing Islamic political authority in South Asia. |
| Greek moral and natural philosophy | Ancient Greek philosophical traditions concerning ethics and the study of the natural world that were preserved and commented upon by Muslim scholars. |
| House of Wisdom | An intellectual center in Abbasid Baghdad where scholars translated, preserved, and advanced knowledge in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. |
| intellectual innovation | The development of new ideas, discoveries, and advances in knowledge within Islamic civilization during this period. |
| Islam | A monotheistic religion founded in the 7th century based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran. |
| Islamic states | Political entities governed by Islamic rulers that emerged as the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented, often dominated by Turkic peoples. |
| Judaism | An ancient monotheistic religion whose beliefs and practices continued to influence societies in Africa and Asia from 1200-1450. |
| Mamluk sultanate | A military state in Egypt ruled by the Mamluks, a slave-soldier class that became a dominant political force in the Islamic world. |
| military expansion | The process of extending territorial control and political authority through military conquest and warfare. |
| Muslim rule | The political authority and governance exercised by Islamic states and leaders over territories in Afro-Eurasia. |
| religious practices | The rituals, customs, and observances through which believers express and live out their faith traditions. |
| Seljuk Empire | A major Muslim state and empire that ruled parts of Asia Minor, the Levant, and Persia during the medieval period. |
| Sufis | Islamic mystics and spiritual teachers who played a key role in spreading Islam through personal devotion and missionary activities. |
| translation movement | The systematic effort by Muslim scholars to translate and preserve Greek, Persian, and other texts into Arabic. |
| Turkic peoples | Central Asian ethnic groups who came to dominate many of the new Islamic political entities that emerged after the Abbasid Caliphate's fragmentation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| belief systems | Organized sets of religious and philosophical ideas that shape the values, practices, and social structures of societies. |
| Bhakti movement | A Hindu religious movement emphasizing devotion to a personal deity and emotional connection to the divine, influential in South Asia during this period. |
| Buddhism | A major world religion and philosophical tradition that spread throughout Asia via trade networks. |
| Buddhist monasticism | The religious practice of Buddhist monks and nuns living in monastic communities devoted to spiritual discipline and the study of Buddhist teachings. |
| core beliefs and practices | The fundamental doctrines and rituals that define and are central to a particular religion or belief system. |
| Hinduism | A major world religion originating in South Asia, characterized by diverse beliefs, practices, and a complex pantheon of deities. |
| Islam | A monotheistic religion founded in the 7th century based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran. |
| Khmer Empire | A major Southeast Asian state centered in Cambodia that maintained power through agricultural innovation, religious patronage, and administrative systems. |
| Majapahit | A maritime empire in Southeast Asia (13th-15th centuries) that maintained power through naval control and tributary relationships with neighboring states. |
| Rajput kingdoms | Hindu warrior states in North and Central India that maintained power through military prowess and feudal political structures. |
| Sinhala dynasties | Ruling families in Sri Lanka that maintained power through control of the island's resources and Buddhist religious authority. |
| Srivijaya Empire | A maritime Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia (7th-13th centuries) that controlled trade routes and maintained power through naval dominance. |
| state building | The process by which political entities establish and strengthen their governmental institutions, territorial control, and administrative systems. |
| Sufism | A mystical branch of Islam emphasizing spiritual experience and personal connection to God, which spread through South and Southeast Asia. |
| Sukhothai kingdom | A Thai state in Southeast Asia (13th-15th centuries) that developed power through administrative organization and cultural patronage. |
| Vijayanagara Empire | A major Hindu state in South India (1336-1646) that maintained power through military strength and administrative organization. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Aztec Empire | A major Mesoamerican state system that dominated central Mexico from the 14th to 16th centuries, known for its military expansion and complex administrative structure. |
| Inca Empire | A large South American state system that expanded across the Andes region from the 13th century onward, characterized by centralized control and sophisticated infrastructure. |
| Mississippi culture | A complex chiefdom-based society in North America (circa 1000-1500 CE) centered in the Mississippi River valley, known for its hierarchical political organization and monumental architecture. |
| state systems | Networks of organized political entities within regions that demonstrated expansion in scope and reach during this period. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ethiopia | An African state that maintained political independence and developed a unique Christian kingdom in the Horn of Africa during this period. |
| Great Zimbabwe | A major African state and civilization in southern Africa (1100-1450) known for its stone architecture and control of regional trade. |
| Hausa kingdoms | A collection of city-states in West Africa (present-day Nigeria) that developed as centers of trade and political power. |
| state systems | Networks of organized political entities within regions that demonstrated expansion in scope and reach during this period. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agriculture | The practice of cultivating crops and raising livestock, which formed the economic foundation of European society from 1200 to 1450. |
| Christianity | A monotheistic religion whose core beliefs and practices shaped societies in Africa and Asia during the period from 1200-1450. |
| coerced labor | Forced labor systems in which workers are compelled to work against their will, including serfdom and other forms of unfree labor. |
| decentralized monarchies | Kingdoms where royal power was limited and shared with regional nobles and lords rather than concentrated in a single central authority. |
| feudalism | A political and economic system based on the relationship between lords and vassals, where land was exchanged for military service and loyalty. |
| Islam | A monotheistic religion founded in the 7th century based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran. |
| Judaism | An ancient monotheistic religion whose beliefs and practices continued to influence societies in Africa and Asia from 1200-1450. |
| manorial system | An economic and social organization of medieval Europe in which peasants worked on a lord's estate (manor) in exchange for protection and the right to cultivate their own plots of land. |
| political decentralization | The distribution of political power and authority away from a central government to regional or local rulers, characteristic of medieval Europe. |
| serfdom | A feudal system in which peasants were bound to the land and owed labor and obligations to a lord. |
| social organization | The hierarchical structure and relationships that define how society is arranged and functions, including roles, classes, and institutions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Abbasid Caliphate | The Islamic empire that ruled from the 8th to 13th centuries; its fragmentation in the 12th-13th centuries led to the emergence of new Islamic political entities. |
| Buddhist states | Political entities in South and Southeast Asia that emerged during this period and were based on Buddhist religious and cultural traditions. |
| Confucianism | A philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius that emphasized social hierarchy, filial piety, and proper conduct, used by Chinese dynasties to justify their rule. |
| continuity | The persistence of established practices, institutions, and traditions in state formation and development across regions. |
| diversity | The variety of different approaches, structures, and characteristics demonstrated by states across various regions during this period. |
| Hindu states | Political entities in South and Southeast Asia that emerged during this period and were based on Hindu religious and cultural traditions. |
| imperial bureaucracy | A centralized system of government administration used by empires like the Song Dynasty to organize and control state functions. |
| innovation | New methods, institutions, and approaches to state formation and governance that emerged during this period. |
| Islamic political entities | Political states and empires established by Islamic rulers, many dominated by Turkic peoples following the fragmentation of the Abbasid Caliphate. |
| Song China | A Chinese dynasty that ruled from 960-1279 CE and utilized Confucianism and imperial bureaucracy to maintain its authority. |
| state building | The process by which political entities establish and strengthen their governmental institutions, territorial control, and administrative systems. |
| state systems | Networks of organized political entities within regions that demonstrated expansion in scope and reach during this period. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| banking houses | Commercial institutions that provided financial services including money lending, currency exchange, and credit to merchants engaged in trade. |
| bills of exchange | Financial instruments that allowed merchants to transfer money across distances without physically transporting currency, facilitating long-distance trade. |
| caravanserai | A roadside inn or fortified trading post that provided shelter and facilities for merchants and traders traveling along trade routes. |
| commercial practices | Methods and systems used in conducting trade and business, including standardized trading procedures and financial mechanisms that facilitated exchange. |
| forms of credit | Financial instruments and practices, such as letters of credit, that facilitated long-distance trade by allowing merchants to conduct transactions without physically transporting large amounts of currency. |
| interregional trade | Commercial exchange of goods across vast geographic distances, connecting multiple continents and regions during the early modern period. |
| iron and steel | Metals whose manufacture expanded in China during this period, reflecting increased productive capacity and trade demand. |
| luxury goods | High-value, non-essential commodities such as textiles, porcelains, spices, and precious items that were highly desired and traded across long distances. |
| money economies | Economic systems based on the use of currency and monetary exchange rather than barter, which expanded trade capabilities. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| paper money | Currency made from paper rather than metal, used in money economies to facilitate trade and commerce. |
| porcelains | Fine ceramic goods produced primarily by Chinese artisans and exported as luxury items through trade networks. |
| textiles | Woven fabrics and cloth produced by Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans for export through trade networks. |
| trade routes | Established pathways—both maritime and overland—along which merchants transported goods, ideas, and cultural practices between regions. |
| trading cities | Urban centers that grew wealthy and powerful through their role as hubs for commercial exchange and merchant activity. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Afro-Eurasian trade | Commercial networks and exchange of goods connecting Africa, Europe, and Asia, facilitated by imperial expansion and conquest. |
| communication | The exchange of information, ideas, and cultural practices between different peoples and regions through trade and contact. |
| conquerors' economies | Economic systems and structures established and controlled by imperial powers in conquered territories. |
| cultural transfer | The movement and adoption of ideas, beliefs, practices, and knowledge systems from one region or civilization to another. |
| empires | Large political units that extended control over diverse populations and territories through conquest or colonization. |
| Greco-Islamic medical knowledge | Medical theories and practices developed through the synthesis of Greek and Islamic scholarship that were transmitted to western Europe during the medieval period. |
| imperial expansion | The process by which empires extended their territorial control and political authority over new regions and populations. |
| interregional contacts | Connections and interactions between different geographic regions and their peoples, often resulting in the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. |
| Mongol Empire | A vast transcontinental empire established by Mongol conquests in the 13th and 14th centuries that facilitated extensive interregional contacts and exchanges. |
| Mongol khanates | The regional divisions of the Mongol Empire, each ruled by a khan and representing distinct territorial and political units. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| numbering systems | Mathematical systems for representing quantities, including the Hindu-Arabic numerals that were transferred to Europe through Mongol-era contacts. |
| state building | The process by which political entities establish and strengthen their governmental institutions, territorial control, and administrative systems. |
| technological transfer | The movement and adoption of tools, techniques, and innovations from one region or civilization to another. |
| Uyghur script | A writing system used by the Uyghur people that was adopted by the Mongols and influenced writing systems across their empire. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| astrolabe | An astronomical instrument used for navigation and determining latitude by measuring the position of celestial bodies. |
| commercial practices | Methods and systems used in conducting trade and business, including standardized trading procedures and financial mechanisms that facilitated exchange. |
| compass | A navigational instrument using magnetic properties to determine direction, essential for oceanic navigation. |
| cultural transfer | The movement and adoption of ideas, beliefs, practices, and knowledge systems from one region or civilization to another. |
| diasporic communities | Groups of merchants and settlers from one region who established themselves in distant locations along trade routes, maintaining their own cultural traditions while interacting with local populations. |
| environmental knowledge | Understanding of natural conditions and patterns, such as wind systems and ocean currents, that enabled the development and maintenance of trade networks. |
| Gujarat | A region in South Asia that became a powerful trading state through its participation in Indian Ocean commerce. |
| Indian Ocean trading network | The interconnected system of maritime trade routes and commercial connections centered on the Indian Ocean that linked Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. |
| interregional contacts | Connections and interactions between different geographic regions and their peoples, often resulting in the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. |
| interregional trade | Commercial exchange of goods across vast geographic distances, connecting multiple continents and regions during the early modern period. |
| luxury goods | High-value, non-essential commodities such as textiles, porcelains, spices, and precious items that were highly desired and traded across long distances. |
| maritime activity | Trade, exploration, and military operations conducted by sea. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| ship designs | Innovations in vessel construction that enabled longer ocean voyages and increased cargo capacity. |
| Sultanate of Malacca | A maritime trading state in Southeast Asia that controlled strategic trade routes in the Indian Ocean. |
| Swahili Coast | A region of East Africa along the Indian Ocean where city-states developed as major trading centers. |
| technological transfer | The movement and adoption of tools, techniques, and innovations from one region or civilization to another. |
| trade routes | Established pathways—both maritime and overland—along which merchants transported goods, ideas, and cultural practices between regions. |
| trading cities | Urban centers that grew wealthy and powerful through their role as hubs for commercial exchange and merchant activity. |
| transportation technologies | Innovations in methods and tools for moving goods and people, such as improved ships and navigation instruments, that increased the efficiency and volume of trade. |
| wind and currents patterns | The predictable movements of ocean winds and water currents that facilitated efficient maritime routes for ships. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Afro-Eurasian trade | Commercial networks and exchange of goods connecting Africa, Europe, and Asia, facilitated by imperial expansion and conquest. |
| camel saddle | A specialized equipment designed to carry cargo on camels, enabling more efficient transport of goods across desert trade routes. |
| caravans | Organized groups of merchants and pack animals traveling together along trade routes for protection and efficiency. |
| commercial practices | Methods and systems used in conducting trade and business, including standardized trading procedures and financial mechanisms that facilitated exchange. |
| communication | The exchange of information, ideas, and cultural practices between different peoples and regions through trade and contact. |
| empires | Large political units that extended control over diverse populations and territories through conquest or colonization. |
| interregional trade | Commercial exchange of goods across vast geographic distances, connecting multiple continents and regions during the early modern period. |
| Mali | A West African empire that expanded during the medieval period and played a major role in facilitating trans-Saharan trade and communication networks. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| trans-Saharan trade | Trade networks and commercial routes that crossed the Sahara Desert, connecting sub-Saharan Africa with North Africa and the Mediterranean world. |
| transportation technologies | Innovations in methods and tools for moving goods and people, such as improved ships and navigation instruments, that increased the efficiency and volume of trade. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| artistic traditions | The visual, musical, and performative cultural practices and styles characteristic of a society. |
| Buddhism | A major world religion and philosophical tradition that spread throughout Asia via trade networks. |
| cultural effects | The influence of trade and exchange networks on the customs, traditions, and practices of societies. |
| diffusion | The spread of cultural traditions, ideas, technologies, and innovations from one region or society to another. |
| gunpowder | An explosive mixture used in firearms and cannons that became a crucial military technology for imperial expansion. |
| Hinduism | A major world religion originating in South Asia, characterized by diverse beliefs, practices, and a complex pantheon of deities. |
| intellectual effects | The impact of exchange networks on ideas, knowledge, and ways of thinking across cultures. |
| interregional contacts | Connections and interactions between different geographic regions and their peoples, often resulting in the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. |
| Islam | A monotheistic religion founded in the 7th century based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran. |
| literary traditions | The body of written works, storytelling practices, and written cultural expressions of a society. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| paper | A Chinese technological innovation used for writing and communication that spread throughout Afro-Eurasia. |
| scientific innovations | New discoveries and advances in knowledge about the natural world. |
| technological innovations | New tools, techniques, and designs that improved efficiency in navigation, shipbuilding, and other productive activities. |
| urbanization | The process of population concentration in cities and the growth of urban areas as a result of migration and industrialization. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Afro-Eurasian trade | Commercial networks and exchange of goods connecting Africa, Europe, and Asia, facilitated by imperial expansion and conquest. |
| bubonic plague | A devastating epidemic disease transmitted along trade routes that caused massive mortality in Afro-Eurasia during the medieval period. |
| diffusion of crops | The spread and adoption of plant species across different regions through trade networks and cultural exchange. |
| diffusion of pathogens | The transmission and spread of disease-causing organisms across regions through trade routes and human contact. |
| epidemic diseases | Diseases that spread rapidly through a population, affecting large numbers of people across wide geographic areas. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biological diffusion | The movement and spread of plants, animals, and diseases across different regions through trade and human interaction. |
| caravanserai | A roadside inn or fortified trading post that provided shelter and facilities for merchants and traders traveling along trade routes. |
| cultural transfer | The movement and adoption of ideas, beliefs, practices, and knowledge systems from one region or civilization to another. |
| forms of credit | Financial instruments and practices, such as letters of credit, that facilitated long-distance trade by allowing merchants to conduct transactions without physically transporting large amounts of currency. |
| iron and steel | Metals whose manufacture expanded in China during this period, reflecting increased productive capacity and trade demand. |
| luxury goods | High-value, non-essential commodities such as textiles, porcelains, spices, and precious items that were highly desired and traded across long distances. |
| money economies | Economic systems based on the use of currency and monetary exchange rather than barter, which expanded trade capabilities. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| porcelains | Fine ceramic goods produced primarily by Chinese artisans and exported as luxury items through trade networks. |
| productive capacity | The ability of a society or region to produce goods, which increased due to expanded trade networks and technological innovations. |
| Silk Roads | Major trade routes connecting East Asia, Central Asia, and the Mediterranean world, facilitating the exchange of goods, technologies, and ideas from c. 1200-1450. |
| technological transfer | The movement and adoption of tools, techniques, and innovations from one region or civilization to another. |
| textiles | Woven fabrics and cloth produced by Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans for export through trade networks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| armed trade | Commercial activity backed by military force, used by empires to establish economic dominance and territorial control. |
| cannons | Large artillery weapons that fired projectiles and were essential military tools for land-based empires to establish and maintain control. |
| gunpowder | An explosive mixture used in firearms and cannons that became a crucial military technology for imperial expansion. |
| land-based empires | Empires that expanded and maintained control through territorial conquest and direct governance of contiguous lands, such as the Ottoman, Russian, and Qing empires. |
| Manchu | A land-based empire that expanded in Central and East Asia during the period 1450-1750. |
| Mughal | A land-based empire that expanded in South and Central Asia during the period 1450-1750. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| Safavid Empire | A Persian Islamic empire that ruled from the 16th to 18th century and was predominantly Shi'a Muslim. |
| Safavid-Mughal conflict | A rivalry between the Safavid and Mughal empires in the Middle East and South Asia that resulted from political and religious disputes. |
| Songhai Empire | A major West African empire that dominated the region from the 15th to 16th centuries, known for its control of trans-Saharan trade routes. |
| state rivalries | Competitive conflicts between empires and states over territory, resources, and political influence. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bureaucratic elites | Educated officials and administrators appointed by rulers to manage government functions and maintain centralized control. |
| centralized control | A system of government where power is concentrated in the hands of a central authority rather than distributed among local rulers. |
| consolidate power | To strengthen and secure a ruler's control over their territory and subjects. |
| devshirme | The Ottoman system of recruiting young boys from conquered territories to serve as elite military and administrative officials. |
| divine right | The European political concept that a ruler's authority to govern comes directly from God and cannot be questioned. |
| human sacrifice | The Mexica religious practice of offering human lives to the gods as a means of legitimizing state power and maintaining cosmic order. |
| legitimize | To establish or justify the right of a ruler to hold power through various methods and institutions. |
| military professionals | Trained soldiers and military officers employed by rulers to maintain order and expand state power. |
| monumental architecture | Large-scale buildings and structures constructed by rulers to display power, religious devotion, and state authority. |
| samurai | Japanese military professionals who served feudal lords and were compensated with regular salaries rather than land grants. |
| tax farming | A system where rulers grant the right to collect taxes to private individuals or officials who keep a portion of the collected revenue. |
| tribute collection | The practice of demanding goods, resources, or payments from conquered or subordinate peoples as a sign of submission and source of revenue. |
| zamindar | A Mughal tax collector or landowner who collected taxes on behalf of the state in exchange for a portion of the revenue. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Catholic Reformation | The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, involving religious reforms and efforts to strengthen Catholic faith and practice. |
| Christian traditions | The established practices, doctrines, and beliefs within Christianity that had developed over centuries before the Reformation. |
| Hinduism | A major world religion originating in South Asia, characterized by diverse beliefs, practices, and a complex pantheon of deities. |
| Islam | A monotheistic religion founded in the 7th century based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| Protestant Reformation | A religious movement beginning in the 16th century that challenged Catholic Church authority and led to the establishment of Protestant churches. |
| Safavid Empire | A Persian Islamic empire that ruled from the 16th to 18th century and was predominantly Shi'a Muslim. |
| Shi'a | A branch of Islam whose followers believe in the spiritual authority of the Imams and emphasize the line of succession from the Prophet Muhammad. |
| Sikhism | A monotheistic religion that developed in South Asia during the 15th-16th centuries from interactions between Hindu and Islamic traditions. |
| Sunni | The largest branch of Islam, whose followers accept the Sunna (teachings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad) and the authority of the caliphs. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| armed trade | Commercial activity backed by military force, used by empires to establish economic dominance and territorial control. |
| gunpowder | An explosive mixture used in firearms and cannons that became a crucial military technology for imperial expansion. |
| imperial expansion | The process by which empires extended their territorial control and political authority over new regions and populations. |
| Manchu | A land-based empire that expanded in Central and East Asia during the period 1450-1750. |
| Mughal | A land-based empire that expanded in South and Central Asia during the period 1450-1750. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| Safavid Empire | A Persian Islamic empire that ruled from the 16th to 18th century and was predominantly Shi'a Muslim. |
| syncretic belief systems | Religious or spiritual systems that blend elements from two or more different belief traditions into a new combined practice. |
| transoceanic travel | Long-distance ocean travel across the Atlantic and other major bodies of water that connected the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| astronomical charts | Maps and diagrams showing positions of stars and celestial bodies used for navigation and determining latitude at sea. |
| caravel | A small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed in Portugal with triangular sails, used for exploration and trade. |
| carrack | A large, multi-decked sailing ship with high castles at bow and stern, used for long-distance ocean voyages and trade. |
| compass | A navigational instrument using magnetic properties to determine direction, essential for oceanic navigation. |
| fluyt | A Dutch merchant ship designed for efficient cargo transport with a narrow hull and shallow draft, used in 17th-century trade. |
| interregional contacts | Connections and interactions between different geographic regions and their peoples, often resulting in the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. |
| lateen sail | A triangular sail rigged on a long diagonal spar, allowing ships to sail closer to the wind and improving maneuverability. |
| patterns of trade | The established routes, commodities, and commercial networks through which goods were exchanged between regions. |
| technological transfer | The movement and adoption of tools, techniques, and innovations from one region or civilization to another. |
| transoceanic travel | Long-distance ocean travel across the Atlantic and other major bodies of water that connected the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. |
| wind and currents patterns | The predictable movements of ocean winds and water currents that facilitated efficient maritime routes for ships. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| alternative sailing routes | New ocean pathways sought by European explorers to reach Asia, bypassing existing trade routes controlled by other powers. |
| maritime exploration | Voyages by sea undertaken by European states to discover new trade routes and territories, particularly to Africa and Asia. |
| maritime technology | Advancements in ship design, navigation instruments, and sailing techniques that enabled longer and safer ocean voyages. |
| navigational skills | Techniques and knowledge used to determine direction and location at sea, essential for successful maritime exploration. |
| state-supported | Funded, organized, or sponsored by government authorities rather than by private individuals or merchants. |
| states | Political entities or governments that exercised power and authority, particularly in organizing and funding maritime exploration during this period. |
| trading-post empire | A colonial system based on establishing fortified trading stations along coastlines to control trade rather than conquering large territories. |
| transoceanic | Crossing or spanning across oceans, referring to voyages that traveled across major bodies of water between continents. |
| transoceanic trade | Commercial exchange of goods between Europe and distant regions across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. |
| transoceanic travel | Long-distance ocean travel across the Atlantic and other major bodies of water that connected the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Afro-Eurasian crops | Plants and grains from Africa, Europe, and Asia, including sugar and various fruits and grains, that were brought to the Americas by Europeans. |
| American food crops | Plants native to the Americas that became staple crops in Europe, Asia, and Africa following the Columbian Exchange. |
| cash crops | Crops grown primarily for commercial sale and export rather than for local consumption. |
| coerced labor | Forced labor systems in which workers are compelled to work against their will, including serfdom and other forms of unfree labor. |
| Columbian Exchange | The transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and other goods between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres following European contact with the Americas. |
| disease vectors | Organisms, such as mosquitoes and rats, that transmit infectious diseases from one location to another. |
| domesticated animals | Animals brought by Europeans to the Americas, including horses, pigs, and cattle. |
| endemic diseases | Diseases that are naturally present and established in a particular geographic region or population. |
| indigenous populations | The native peoples who originally inhabited territories before imperial conquest and colonization. |
| malaria | A parasitic disease transmitted by mosquitoes that causes fever and is associated with poverty and inadequate public health infrastructure. |
| measles | An infectious disease transmitted from the Eastern Hemisphere to the Americas with devastating effects on indigenous populations. |
| plantations | Large-scale agricultural estates focused on producing cash crops for export, typically using coerced labor. |
| smallpox | A highly contagious disease brought from the Eastern Hemisphere to the Americas that caused massive mortality among indigenous populations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Asante | A West African state whose growth and influence expanded through participation in maritime and regional trading networks during the 16th-18th centuries. |
| chattel slavery | A labor system in which enslaved people are treated as property that can be bought, sold, and inherited. |
| colonial economies | Economic systems established in colonized territories, typically organized to benefit the colonizing power. |
| economic systems | The organized structures and methods by which societies produce, distribute, and consume goods and services. |
| encomienda | A Spanish colonial labor system that granted colonists control over indigenous peoples' labor in exchange for their protection and conversion to Christianity. |
| global trade networks | Interconnected systems of long-distance commerce linking Europe, Africa, and Asia that expanded significantly after 1450. |
| Gujaratis | Merchants from Gujarat in India who participated in Indian Ocean trade networks. |
| hacienda | A large agricultural estate in Spanish America, typically worked by indigenous peoples or enslaved laborers. |
| indentured servitude | A labor system in which workers, particularly Chinese and Indian migrants, were bound by contract to work for a specified period in exchange for passage and subsistence. |
| Indian Ocean | The ocean region connecting Africa, Asia, and the Middle East where enslaved persons were exported and trade networks operated. |
| Indian Ocean trade | Maritime commerce and exchange networks connecting Africa, Asia, and the Middle East through the Indian Ocean, a major route for goods and ideas from 1450-1750. |
| interregional trade | Commercial exchange of goods across vast geographic distances, connecting multiple continents and regions during the early modern period. |
| intra-Asian trade | Commercial exchange of goods and services between different regions and peoples within Asia. |
| isolationist trade policies | Restrictive governmental strategies adopted by some Asian states to limit foreign economic and cultural influence by controlling or reducing participation in long-distance trade. |
| Javanese | Merchants and traders from Java in Southeast Asia who engaged in Indian Ocean commerce. |
| Kingdom of the Kongo | A Central African state that increased its influence and power through involvement in European-dominated trading networks during the early modern period. |
| labor systems | The organized methods and structures through which societies organize work and the relationships between workers and those who control production. |
| maritime empires | Empires that expanded and maintained control through naval power and overseas colonial possessions rather than contiguous territorial expansion. |
| Mediterranean | The sea region between Europe, Africa, and Asia where enslaved persons were exported during this period. |
| mit'a | An Incan labor system requiring subjects to provide labor service to the state for public works and military service. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| Omanis | Merchants from Oman in the Arabian Peninsula who were active traders in the Indian Ocean region. |
| plantation economy | An economic system based on large-scale agricultural estates that produced cash crops for export, typically relying on enslaved labor. |
| slavery | The system of forced labor in which people are treated as property and compelled to work without freedom or compensation. |
| state building | The process by which political entities establish and strengthen their governmental institutions, territorial control, and administrative systems. |
| Swahili Arabs | Arab merchants and traders active in the Indian Ocean region who participated in trade networks including the slave trade. |
| trading posts | Fortified settlements established by European powers in Africa and Asia to facilitate commercial exchange and control regional trade networks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| artisan labor | Skilled craft work by specialized producers whose output increased to supply consumer goods demanded by growing global trade networks. |
| Asian goods | Luxury and commercial products from Asia, including spices, silk, porcelain, and tea, that were highly sought after in Atlantic markets. |
| Atlantic trading system | A complex network of trade routes and economic exchanges between Africa, Europe, and the Americas from the 15th to 18th centuries, involving the movement of goods, enslaved persons, and cultural practices. |
| belief systems | Organized sets of religious and philosophical ideas that shape the values, practices, and social structures of societies. |
| chartered monopoly companies | European trading companies granted exclusive rights by their governments to conduct commerce in specific regions, controlling trade networks and colonial enterprises. |
| cultural synthesis | The blending and integration of African, American, and European cultures, beliefs, and practices resulting from contact and interaction through the Atlantic trading system. |
| demographic changes | Significant shifts in population size, distribution, and composition, such as those experienced in Africa due to the trade in enslaved persons. |
| economic strategies | Deliberate policies and approaches used by states and empires to manage production, trade, and resource allocation. |
| enslaved persons | Individuals forcibly removed from their homes and forced into servitude, primarily Africans transported across the Atlantic to the Americas during the period 1450-1750. |
| gender and family restructuring | Changes in family structures, gender roles, and social relationships that occurred in societies affected by the Atlantic trading system and the trade in enslaved persons. |
| global circulation of goods | The worldwide movement and exchange of commodities facilitated by maritime trade routes and commercial networks between continents. |
| global flow of silver | The large-scale movement of silver from Spanish American colonies to Europe and Asia, used as currency to purchase goods and satisfy demand in global markets. |
| global trade | International commercial exchange of goods and services between different regions and states during the early modern period. |
| Indian Ocean trade | Maritime commerce and exchange networks connecting Africa, Asia, and the Middle East through the Indian Ocean, a major route for goods and ideas from 1450-1750. |
| joint-stock companies | Business enterprises in which multiple investors pooled capital to finance exploration and trade, used by rulers and merchants to compete in global commerce. |
| mercantilist policies | Economic strategies employed by European rulers to expand state control over economies and acquire overseas territories through trade regulation and colonial expansion. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| peasant labor | Work performed by rural agricultural workers whose labor intensified to meet increased demand for food and goods in expanding trade networks. |
| regional markets | Local and continental trading networks in Afro-Eurasia that continued to operate using established commercial practices alongside new global trade routes. |
| religious conflicts | Tensions, disputes, or violence arising from differences in religious beliefs, practices, or institutional interests between groups. |
| Songhai Empire | A major West African empire that dominated the region from the 15th to 16th centuries, known for its control of trans-Saharan trade routes. |
| Spanish colonies in the Americas | European colonial territories established by Spain in the Western Hemisphere, which produced significant quantities of silver for global trade. |
| syncretic belief systems | Religious or spiritual systems that blend elements from two or more different belief traditions into a new combined practice. |
| trade routes | Established pathways—both maritime and overland—along which merchants transported goods, ideas, and cultural practices between regions. |
| transoceanic shipping | Maritime transport services that crossed oceans, developed by European merchants to connect distant regions and facilitate long-distance trade. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ana Nzinga | A 17th-century ruler of Ndongo and Matamba in Central Africa who resisted Portuguese colonial expansion and the slave trade. |
| centralization | The concentration of political authority and administrative power in a central government rather than in local or regional authorities. |
| Cossack revolts | Uprisings by Cossack communities against Russian state authority and expansion, particularly in the 17th century. |
| Fronde | A series of civil wars in France during the 17th century involving nobility and the Paris Parlement resisting royal centralization. |
| local resistance | Opposition to state authority and expansion by communities, groups, and populations at the local or regional level. |
| Maratha conflict with Mughals | Military and political resistance by the Maratha Confederacy against Mughal imperial expansion in India. |
| Maroon societies | Communities of formerly enslaved persons who escaped and established independent settlements in the Caribbean and Brazil. |
| Metacom's War | A conflict (1675-1678) between Native American forces led by Metacom and English colonists in New England, also known as King Philip's War. |
| organized resistance | Coordinated and deliberate opposition by groups to challenge existing authorities and state power. |
| Pueblo Revolts | A series of uprisings by Pueblo peoples against Spanish colonial rule in New Mexico, most notably in 1680. |
| state expansion | The process by which a state increases its territorial control and political authority over larger areas and populations. |
| state power | The authority and capacity of a centralized government to control territory, enforce laws, and mobilize resources. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Casta system | A hierarchical racial and social classification system in the Americas that categorized people by ethnic and racial ancestry. |
| economic elites | Groups holding wealth, resources, and influence over economic systems and opportunities. |
| European nobility | The hereditary aristocratic class in Europe that held political power, land ownership, and social status. |
| Mughal Empire | A major Islamic empire in South Asia (16th-18th centuries) known for accommodating religious and ethnic diversity among its subjects. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| Ottoman timars | Land grants given to Ottoman military officials and administrators as a form of compensation and control. |
| political elites | Groups holding power and influence in government and political decision-making. |
| Qing Dynasty | The final imperial dynasty of China (1644-1912) that marked a transition in political and economic elites in China. |
| Russian boyars | Members of the old Russian aristocracy who held significant political and economic power before centralization under the monarchy. |
| social categories | Divisions of society based on characteristics such as race, class, gender, and religion that organize social structures and relationships. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural labor | Work performed in farming and food production, including changes in how laborers were organized and compensated. |
| Atlantic slave trade | The forced migration of millions of Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas to provide labor for colonial economies. |
| economic developments | Changes in production, trade, labor systems, and commercial practices that transformed societies between 1450 and 1750. |
| empires | Large political units that extended control over diverse populations and territories through conquest or colonization. |
| finished products | Manufactured goods that have been processed and are ready for trade or consumption. |
| gender structures | The social roles, responsibilities, and hierarchies assigned to men and women in society. |
| manufacturing systems | The organization and methods of producing goods, including changes in location, technology, and labor arrangements. |
| peasant agriculture | Farming systems based on small-scale production by rural laborers, often tied to land ownership or feudal obligations. |
| plantations | Large-scale agricultural estates focused on producing cash crops for export, typically using coerced labor. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources extracted from the environment, such as cotton, rubber, and metals, used as inputs for factory production. |
| ship designs | Innovations in vessel construction that enabled longer ocean voyages and increased cargo capacity. |
| social structures | The hierarchical organization of society including class, gender roles, and labor systems. |
| technological innovations | New tools, techniques, and designs that improved efficiency in navigation, shipbuilding, and other productive activities. |
| transoceanic travel | Long-distance ocean travel across the Atlantic and other major bodies of water that connected the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. |
| wind and currents patterns | The predictable movements of ocean winds and water currents that facilitated efficient maritime routes for ships. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abolition of slavery | The movement to end the institution of slavery and free enslaved people. |
| empiricist approaches | Methods of understanding based on observation and experience rather than theory or tradition alone. |
| Enlightenment ideas | Philosophical concepts from the Enlightenment period emphasizing reason, individual rights, and scientific thinking that influenced social and political reform movements. |
| Enlightenment philosophies | Intellectual movements of the 17th and 18th centuries that applied reason and empirical observation to understand the natural world and human relationships, questioning established traditions. |
| expansion of rights | The process of extending legal protections and freedoms to broader segments of society, including voting rights and personal liberties. |
| feminism | A movement advocating for women's rights and equality between genders in political, social, and economic spheres. |
| gender hierarchies | Systems of ranked social and political authority based on gender, typically placing men in positions of greater power and privilege. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and the desire for national independence and self-determination. |
| natural rights | Fundamental rights believed to belong to all individuals by virtue of their humanity, a key concept developed by Enlightenment philosophers. |
| political hierarchies | Systems of ranked authority and power distribution in government and political institutions. |
| reform movements | Organized efforts to change and improve social, political, or economic systems based on new ideas and principles. |
| serfdom | A feudal system in which peasants were bound to the land and owed labor and obligations to a lord. |
| social contract | A political theory developed by Enlightenment philosophers describing an agreement between individuals and government to establish legitimate authority. |
| suffrage | The right to vote in political elections and decisions. |
| women's suffrage | The right of women to vote in political elections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| consumer goods | Products manufactured for purchase and use by individual consumers rather than for further production or business use. |
| Enlightenment | An 18th-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, empiricism, and new ways of understanding the natural world and human relationships. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system combining industrial production with capitalist principles, where private individuals and companies own and control the means of production for profit. |
| Industrial Revolution | The period of rapid industrial growth and social change, roughly from 1750 to 1900, characterized by the shift from agrarian economies to industrial production. |
| nation-states | Sovereign political units with defined territories, centralized governments, and populations sharing a common identity or nationality. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and the desire for national independence and self-determination. |
| natural rights | Fundamental rights believed to belong to all individuals by virtue of their humanity, a key concept developed by Enlightenment philosophers. |
| railroads | Transportation networks powered by steam engines that enabled exploration, resource development, and increased trade globally. |
| rebellion | An organized resistance or uprising against existing governmental authority, common during the 18th century. |
| revolution | A fundamental and often violent overthrow of an existing government or social system, occurring frequently in the 18th century. |
| social contract | A political theory developed by Enlightenment philosophers describing an agreement between individuals and government to establish legitimate authority. |
| steamships | Vessels powered by steam engines that facilitated global exploration, trade, and migration across oceans. |
| telegraph | A communication technology that transmitted messages over long distances, enabling rapid communication for trade and coordination. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Revolution | The 1775-1783 conflict in which thirteen British colonies in North America rebelled against British rule and established the independent United States of America. |
| Balkan nationalisms | 19th-century nationalist movements in the Balkan region seeking independence from Ottoman rule and national self-determination. |
| Declaration of Independence | The 1776 American document declaring the thirteen colonies' separation from British rule and asserting principles of individual rights and popular sovereignty. |
| Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen | The 1789 French revolutionary document establishing principles of individual rights, equality, and popular sovereignty during the French Revolution. |
| democracy | A system of government in which power is held by the people, either directly or through elected representatives. |
| Enlightenment philosophers | 18th-century European thinkers who promoted ideas of reason, individual rights, and limits on governmental authority, influencing revolutionary movements. |
| French Revolution | The 1789-1799 period of radical social and political upheaval in France that overthrew the monarchy and established democratic ideals. |
| German unification | The 19th-century process of consolidating German-speaking territories into a single nation-state under Prussian leadership. |
| Haitian Revolution | The 1791-1804 rebellion in Haiti that resulted in the abolition of slavery and the establishment of an independent nation, the first successful slave revolution. |
| imperialism | The policy and practice of extending a country's power and influence over other territories and peoples, typically through colonization and military force. |
| independence | The state of being free from colonial or imperial rule and having sovereign control over one's own government and territory. |
| Italian unification | The 19th-century process of consolidating Italian territories into a single nation-state, completed in 1871. |
| Latin American independence movements | Early 19th-century rebellions across Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Central and South America that led to the establishment of independent nations. |
| liberalism | A 19th-century ideology emphasizing individual rights, representative government, and limits on governmental power. |
| monarchy | A system of government in which power is held by a single ruler, typically a king or queen, often inherited through family lines. |
| nation-states | Sovereign political units with defined territories, centralized governments, and populations sharing a common identity or nationality. |
| national identity | A sense of commonality and belonging shared by people based on language, religion, social customs, territory, or shared history. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and the desire for national independence and self-determination. |
| Ottomanism | An ideology promoting loyalty to the Ottoman Empire and its multi-ethnic state, emphasizing unity across diverse populations. |
| political authority | The legitimate power to govern and make decisions within a state or political entity. |
| republic | A system of government in which power rests with citizens and their elected representatives, rather than with a monarch. |
| revolutions | Sudden, violent, or complete overthrow of an existing government or political system, often resulting in fundamental social and political change. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural productivity | The efficiency and output of farming, including improved crop yields and production methods that freed labor for industrial work. |
| capital accumulation | The gathering of wealth and resources available for investment in new industries, machines, and production. |
| coal | A fossil fuel formed from ancient plant material, widely used as an energy source during the Industrial Revolution. |
| fossil fuels | Energy resources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal and oil, that powered industrial development. |
| Industrial Revolution | The period of rapid industrial growth and social change, roughly from 1750 to 1900, characterized by the shift from agrarian economies to industrial production. |
| internal combustion engine | An engine that generates power by burning fuel inside a cylinder, used to power vehicles and machinery. |
| iron | A metal element essential for manufacturing machinery, tools, and infrastructure during industrial production. |
| oil | A fossil fuel extracted from underground deposits, used as an energy source and raw material for industrial production. |
| private property | Legal ownership of land and resources by individuals or corporations, which incentivized investment in industrial development. |
| steam engine | A machine that converts heat energy from burning fuel into mechanical power, enabling factories and transportation to operate independently of water power. |
| timber | Wood harvested from forests, used as a raw material for construction and fuel during industrial development. |
| urbanization | The process of population concentration in cities and the growth of urban areas as a result of migration and industrialization. |
| waterways | Natural or artificial channels of water, such as rivers and canals, used for transportation of goods and power for mills. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| first Industrial Revolution | The period of rapid industrial development characterized by the spread of steam-powered manufacturing, primarily in European countries and the United States. |
| global manufacturing | The worldwide production of manufactured goods, with different regions' shares changing as industrial production methods spread unevenly across the world. |
| iron works | Facilities for producing iron and iron goods, an important manufacturing sector in India that experienced decline during the spread of industrialization. |
| modes of production | Different methods and systems of manufacturing and creating goods, such as steam-powered industrial production versus traditional craft production. |
| shipbuilding | The construction of ships, an important manufacturing industry in India and Southeast Asia that declined in global share during industrialization. |
| steam-powered industrial production | Manufacturing processes that use steam engines to power machinery, which became widespread in European countries and the U.S. during the first Industrial Revolution. |
| textile production | The manufacturing of cloth and fabric goods, a major industry in India and Egypt that saw its global share decline as industrial production spread. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| coal | A fossil fuel formed from ancient plant material, widely used as an energy source during the Industrial Revolution. |
| electricity | A form of energy harnessed and distributed during the second industrial revolution to power factories and transportation. |
| fossil fuels | Energy resources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal and oil, that powered industrial development. |
| internal combustion engine | An engine that generates power by burning fuel inside a cylinder, used to power vehicles and machinery. |
| oil | A fossil fuel extracted from underground deposits, used as an energy source and raw material for industrial production. |
| precision machinery | Finely engineered machines developed during the second industrial revolution for accurate and efficient production. |
| railroads | Transportation networks powered by steam engines that enabled exploration, resource development, and increased trade globally. |
| second industrial revolution | The period in the second half of the 19th century characterized by new production methods in steel, chemicals, electricity, and precision machinery. |
| steam engine | A machine that converts heat energy from burning fuel into mechanical power, enabling factories and transportation to operate independently of water power. |
| steamships | Vessels powered by steam engines that facilitated global exploration, trade, and migration across oceans. |
| steel production | The manufacturing process of steel, which was revolutionized during the second industrial revolution to increase efficiency and output. |
| telegraph | A communication technology that transmitted messages over long distances, enabling rapid communication for trade and coordination. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cotton textile industry | The manufacturing sector focused on producing cotton fabrics and textiles, a key industry during industrialization. |
| economic strategies | Deliberate policies and approaches used by states and empires to manage production, trade, and resource allocation. |
| Industrial Revolution | The period of rapid industrial growth and social change, roughly from 1750 to 1900, characterized by the shift from agrarian economies to industrial production. |
| Meiji Era | The period of Japanese history (1868-1912) marked by rapid modernization, industrialization, and the emergence of Japan as a regional power. |
| state-sponsored industrialization | Government-directed efforts to develop manufacturing and industrial capacity within a nation's economy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| banking and finance | Financial institutions and practices that manage money, credit, and investment to support economic activity and trade. |
| free markets | Economic systems where prices and production are determined by supply and demand with minimal government regulation. |
| free trade | An economic policy that reduces or eliminates tariffs and trade barriers to allow goods and services to move freely between nations. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system combining industrial production with capitalist principles, where private individuals and companies own and control the means of production for profit. |
| laissez-faire capitalism | An economic system based on minimal government intervention in the economy, allowing market forces and individual self-interest to drive production and distribution. |
| limited-liability corporations | Business organizations where owners' financial responsibility is limited to their investment, protecting personal assets from business debts. |
| mercantilism | An economic system where nations accumulate wealth through trade surpluses and the acquisition of precious metals, with government regulation of commerce to benefit the state. |
| stock markets | Institutions where shares of companies are bought and sold, allowing businesses to raise capital and investors to own portions of enterprises. |
| transnational businesses | Large-scale commercial enterprises that operate across multiple countries and engage in international trade and production. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| communism | A political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society where resources and means of production are collectively owned. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system combining industrial production with capitalist principles, where private individuals and companies own and control the means of production for profit. |
| industrializing states | Nations undergoing the transition from agrarian to industrial economies through mechanized production and factory systems. |
| labor unions | Organizations formed by workers to collectively advocate for improved working conditions, limited working hours, and higher wages. |
| reforms | Changes made to political, social, educational, or urban systems in response to perceived problems or demands for improvement. |
| socialism | A political and economic ideology advocating for collective or state ownership of resources and means of production, with the goal of reducing economic inequality. |
| workers' movements | Organized efforts by workers to challenge existing economic and social conditions and promote alternative visions of society. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| global capitalism | An economic system based on private ownership, market competition, and profit-seeking that operates on a worldwide scale. |
| housing shortages | Insufficient availability of adequate housing to meet the needs of growing urban populations during rapid industrialization. |
| Industrial Revolution | The period of rapid industrial growth and social change, roughly from 1750 to 1900, characterized by the shift from agrarian economies to industrial production. |
| industrial working class | A social class of laborers who worked in factories and industries for wages, emerging as a distinct group during industrialization. |
| infrastructure | The basic physical systems and facilities, such as roads, water systems, and sanitation, needed to support urban populations. |
| middle class | A social class that emerged during industrialization, typically composed of merchants, professionals, and business owners with moderate wealth and education. |
| pollution | The contamination of air, water, and land by industrial waste and byproducts, a major consequence of rapid industrialization. |
| poverty | The state of lacking sufficient income and resources to meet basic needs for food, shelter, and other necessities. |
| public health crises | Widespread health emergencies affecting populations, such as disease outbreaks and epidemics resulting from poor urban conditions. |
| social hierarchies | The ranking and organization of social groups based on factors such as wealth, occupation, and status within a society. |
| standards of living | The level of material comfort and access to goods, services, and resources available to individuals or groups in society. |
| urbanization | The process of population concentration in cities and the growth of urban areas as a result of migration and industrialization. |
| wage-earning jobs | Employment positions where workers receive payment in the form of wages or salaries for their labor. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civilizing mission | The ideological justification for imperialism based on the belief that Western powers had a duty to bring civilization, Christianity, and modern institutions to non-Western peoples. |
| imperialism | The policy and practice of extending a country's power and influence over other territories and peoples, typically through colonization and military force. |
| indigenous populations | The native peoples who originally inhabited territories before imperial conquest and colonization. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and the desire for national independence and self-determination. |
| Social Darwinism | An ideology that applied Darwin's theory of natural selection to human societies, arguing that some races or nations were naturally superior and destined to dominate others. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| colonies | Territories under the political control and settlement of a foreign power, typically established for economic exploitation or strategic advantage. |
| diplomacy | Negotiation and peaceful relations between states used to achieve political objectives such as territorial acquisition. |
| direct control | Immediate governance of a territory by a state government rather than through intermediaries or private entities. |
| Dutch East India Company | A private trading company that controlled territories in Indonesia and Southeast Asia before Dutch government takeover. |
| empires | Large political units that extended control over diverse populations and territories through conquest or colonization. |
| non-state entities | Organizations or individuals other than governments that exercise political or economic power, such as trading companies. |
| private ownership | Control of territory or resources by an individual or private company rather than by a state government. |
| settler colonies | Colonies established by permanent settlement of people from the colonizing state, often displacing indigenous populations. |
| state power | The authority and capacity of a centralized government to control territory, enforce laws, and mobilize resources. |
| territorial expansion | The process by which a state increases the land area under its control through conquest, settlement, or diplomacy. |
| warfare | Military conflict used as a means to acquire or maintain control over territories. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anti-imperial resistance | Organized opposition and movements against imperial rule and colonial control. |
| anticolonial movements | Organized efforts by colonized peoples to resist imperial rule and achieve independence from colonial powers. |
| Cherokee Nation | A Native American state established as indigenous peoples responded to American expansion and imperial pressure. |
| direct resistance | Immediate, confrontational opposition to imperial rule through military conflict, rebellion, or armed struggle. |
| imperial rule | The political control and governance exercised by an imperial power over colonized territories and peoples. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and the desire for national independence and self-determination. |
| political authority | The legitimate power to govern and make decisions within a state or political entity. |
| Sokoto Caliphate | An Islamic state established in West Africa (modern-day Nigeria) as a response to imperial expansion. |
| state building | The process by which political entities establish and strengthen their governmental institutions, territorial control, and administrative systems. |
| Zulu Kingdom | A state formed in Southern Africa that resisted European colonial expansion in the 19th century. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| commercial extraction | The large-scale removal and harvesting of natural resources from the environment for profit and trade. |
| cotton production | The cultivation and harvesting of cotton as a commercial crop for export, particularly significant in Egypt during this period. |
| environmental factors | Physical and natural conditions such as climate, geography, and natural resources that influence economic development and trade patterns. |
| export economies | Economic systems organized around the extraction and sale of natural resources and agricultural products to foreign markets for profit. |
| finished goods | Manufactured products that have been processed and are ready for sale to consumers, typically purchased with profits from raw material exports. |
| global economy | The interconnected system of economic production, trade, and financial flows that spans across nations and continents. |
| guano industries | The commercial extraction and export of guano (bird droppings) from Peru and Chile as a fertilizer and valuable trade commodity. |
| palm oil trade | The commercial extraction and export of palm oil from West Africa as a valuable commodity for industrial and consumer use. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources extracted from the environment, such as cotton, rubber, and metals, used as inputs for factory production. |
| rubber extraction | The commercial harvesting of rubber from trees in tropical regions, particularly in the Amazon and Congo basin, for export markets. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| commodities | Raw materials or goods that are produced and traded in large quantities, such as opium, cotton, palm oil, and copper. |
| economic imperialism | The practice of using economic pressure, control of trade, and business influence by industrialized nations to dominate and exploit less developed regions rather than direct political control. |
| global economy | The interconnected system of economic production, trade, and financial flows that spans across nations and continents. |
| industrialized states | Nations that have undergone industrialization and possess advanced manufacturing capabilities, technology, and economic power. |
| Opium Wars | Military conflicts between Britain and China in the 19th century fought over the trade of opium, resulting in British economic and political advantages in China. |
| trade advantage | An economic benefit gained by merchants and companies through control of commodity production, distribution, or access to markets. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| coerced labor migration | The forced movement of people from one location to another for labor purposes, including enslavement and convict labor. |
| convict labor | The forced labor of convicted criminals, used as a form of coerced migration to colonies and penal settlements. |
| demographics | Statistical data about populations, including size, growth, age distribution, and composition that influenced migration decisions. |
| economic factors | The financial, commercial, and labor-related conditions that influenced decisions about migration and relocation during the period 1750-1900. |
| enslavement | The forced subjugation of people into slavery, a form of coerced labor migration. |
| environmental factors | Physical and natural conditions such as climate, geography, and natural resources that influence economic development and trade patterns. |
| external migration | Movement of people across national or regional boundaries to settle in new territories. |
| global capitalist economy | An interconnected worldwide economic system based on private ownership, market exchange, and profit-driven production across international boundaries. |
| indentured servitude | A labor system in which workers, particularly Chinese and Indian migrants, were bound by contract to work for a specified period in exchange for passage and subsistence. |
| industrialized societies | Nations and regions that had developed factory-based manufacturing and industrial economies during the 18th and 19th centuries. |
| internal migration | Movement of people within a country or region, often from rural areas to cities. |
| migration patterns | The movement of people from one region to another during a specific historical period, characterized by particular directions, volumes, and demographic compositions. |
| modes of transportation | Methods and systems of moving people and goods, including steamships, railroads, and other innovations that facilitated migration. |
| patterns of migration | The distinct routes, destinations, and characteristics of population movements during the period 1750-1900, shaped by economic conditions. |
| semicoerced labor migration | Labor migration involving limited choice or consent, such as indentured servitude where workers were bound by contract. |
| unindustrialized societies | Nations and regions that maintained primarily agricultural or pre-industrial economies during the period of global industrialization. |
| urbanization | The process of population concentration in cities and the growth of urban areas as a result of migration and industrialization. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Chinese Exclusion Act | U.S. legislation that restricted immigration and naturalization of Chinese people in the United States during the late 19th century. |
| ethnic enclaves | Concentrated communities of immigrants from the same ethnic or national background living in a specific geographic area, often preserving their cultural practices and traditions. |
| ethnic prejudice | Discriminatory attitudes and beliefs held against people based on their ethnic or national origin. |
| migration patterns | The movement of people from one region to another during a specific historical period, characterized by particular directions, volumes, and demographic compositions. |
| racial prejudice | Discriminatory attitudes and beliefs held against people based on their racial classification. |
| White Australia Policy | Australian government policy that restricted non-European immigration and promoted European settlement in Australia. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| colonies | Territories under the political control and settlement of a foreign power, typically established for economic exploitation or strategic advantage. |
| consumer goods | Products manufactured for purchase and use by individual consumers rather than for further production or business use. |
| global capitalist economy | An interconnected worldwide economic system based on private ownership, market exchange, and profit-driven production across international boundaries. |
| imperialism | The policy and practice of extending a country's power and influence over other territories and peoples, typically through colonization and military force. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system combining industrial production with capitalist principles, where private individuals and companies own and control the means of production for profit. |
| migration patterns | The movement of people from one region to another during a specific historical period, characterized by particular directions, volumes, and demographic compositions. |
| nation-states | Sovereign political units with defined territories, centralized governments, and populations sharing a common identity or nationality. |
| transoceanic empires | Political and territorial systems that extended across oceans, connecting European powers with colonies and territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| communist revolution | A violent or rapid political upheaval resulting in the establishment of a communist government and restructuring of society along communist principles. |
| land-based empires | Empires that expanded and maintained control through territorial conquest and direct governance of contiguous lands, such as the Ottoman, Russian, and Qing empires. |
| maritime empires | Empires that expanded and maintained control through naval power and overseas colonial possessions rather than contiguous territorial expansion. |
| Mexican Revolution | A major uprising in Mexico that arose from political crisis and challenged the existing political and social order in the early 20th century. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| political crisis | A severe breakdown in governmental authority and legitimacy that can lead to revolutionary change. |
| Qing Empire | A land-based Chinese empire that collapsed in the early 20th century due to internal and external factors. |
| Russian Empire | A land-based empire that collapsed in the early 20th century, leading to communist revolution in Russia. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| alliance system | A network of formal agreements between nations to provide mutual military support and defense, which played a key role in escalating World War I. |
| imperialist expansion | The process by which powerful nations extended their control over foreign territories and peoples to acquire resources and political influence. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and the desire for national independence and self-determination. |
| regional conflicts | Localized disputes between neighboring nations or groups within specific geographic areas that contributed to broader international tensions. |
| territorial conflicts | Disputes between nations over control of land and geographic regions, which heightened tensions in the lead-up to World War I. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| military technology | New weapons and equipment developed during WWI, such as tanks, poison gas, and aircraft, that increased casualty rates. |
| mobilize | To organize and prepare populations, resources, and military forces for war. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and the desire for national independence and self-determination. |
| political propaganda | Information or messaging created and distributed by governments to influence public opinion and support for war efforts. |
| total war | A form of warfare in which governments mobilize all of a nation's resources and population, including civilians, to support the war effort. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| economic crisis | A severe disruption in economic activity, characterized by widespread unemployment, falling prices, and reduced production, such as occurred after 1900. |
| fascist corporatist economy | An economic system in fascist Italy and Germany where the state controlled major industries and organized economic activity through state-directed corporations. |
| Five Year Plans | Soviet economic programs that centrally planned and directed the national economy, often implemented with repressive policies. |
| government intervention | Active involvement by the state in economic affairs, including regulation, control, or management of economic activity. |
| Great Depression | The severe global economic crisis of the 1930s that destabilized economies and contributed to the rise of authoritarian regimes. |
| New Deal | A series of U.S. government programs and policies implemented in response to the Great Depression to provide relief, recovery, and reform. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anti-imperial resistance | Organized opposition and movements against imperial rule and colonial control. |
| changes | Transformations or alterations in conditions, control, or status over time. |
| colonial holdings | Territories and regions controlled and administered by imperial powers as colonies. |
| conquest | The acquisition of territory through military force or warfare. |
| continuities | Elements, patterns, or conditions that remain unchanged or persist over time. |
| empires | Large political units that extended control over diverse populations and territories through conquest or colonization. |
| Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere | Japan's imperial ideology and territorial expansion program aimed at creating a Japanese-dominated economic and political bloc in East and Southeast Asia. |
| Indian National Congress | A major political organization in India that led anti-imperial resistance and the independence movement against British colonial rule. |
| League of Nations mandates | A system established after World War I where the League of Nations assigned former enemy territories to Allied powers to administer as trustees. |
| Manchukuo | A puppet state established by Japan in Manchuria in 1932 as part of Japanese imperial expansion. |
| territorial holdings | The geographic areas and colonies controlled and governed by a state or empire. |
| treaty settlement | The formal agreement between nations that determines territorial boundaries and control following conflict. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| fascism | An authoritarian ideology emphasizing national power and state control, used by totalitarian governments to mobilize resources for war. |
| Great Depression | The severe global economic crisis of the 1930s that destabilized economies and contributed to the rise of authoritarian regimes. |
| imperialism | The policy and practice of extending a country's power and influence over other territories and peoples, typically through colonization and military force. |
| militarism | The policy of building up military strength and using military force as an instrument of national policy. |
| Nazi Germany | Germany under the fascist regime of Adolf Hitler, characterized by aggressive expansion and militarism that led to World War II. |
| peace settlement | The formal agreement and terms imposed to end World War I, which created conditions that contributed to World War II. |
| totalitarianism | A system of government that exercises complete control over all aspects of public and private life. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| atomic bomb | A new military technology developed during WWII that used nuclear fission to create an extremely destructive weapon. |
| communism | A political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society where resources and means of production are collectively owned. |
| fascism | An authoritarian ideology emphasizing national power and state control, used by totalitarian governments to mobilize resources for war. |
| fire-bombing | A military tactic involving the dropping of incendiary bombs to create widespread fires and destruction in enemy territories. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and the desire for national independence and self-determination. |
| political propaganda | Information or messaging created and distributed by governments to influence public opinion and support for war efforts. |
| total war | A form of warfare in which governments mobilize all of a nation's resources and population, including civilians, to support the war effort. |
| totalitarian state | A government that exercises complete control over all aspects of citizens' lives, including repression of basic freedoms. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| ethnic violence | Violent conflict between groups based on ethnic or racial identity. |
| extremist groups | Political or ideological organizations that advocate for radical change and often employ violence to achieve their goals. |
| genocide | The deliberate and systematic attempt to destroy an entire ethnic, religious, or national group of people. |
| Holocaust | The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by Nazi Germany during World War II. |
| mass atrocities | Large-scale violent acts committed against civilian populations, causing widespread death and suffering. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| communist revolution | A violent or rapid political upheaval resulting in the establishment of a communist government and restructuring of society along communist principles. |
| global conflict | Widespread armed disputes and wars involving multiple nations or regions during the period from 1900 to the present. |
| land-based empires | Empires that expanded and maintained control through territorial conquest and direct governance of contiguous lands, such as the Ottoman, Russian, and Qing empires. |
| maritime empires | Empires that expanded and maintained control through naval power and overseas colonial possessions rather than contiguous territorial expansion. |
| Mexican Revolution | A major uprising in Mexico that arose from political crisis and challenged the existing political and social order in the early 20th century. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| political order | The system of governance and power relationships that organize states and societies at local, regional, or global levels. |
| Qing Empire | A land-based Chinese empire that collapsed in the early 20th century due to internal and external factors. |
| Russian Empire | A land-based empire that collapsed in the early 20th century, leading to communist revolution in Russia. |
| science and technology | Systematic knowledge and practical applications that altered understanding of the universe and natural world from 1900 to present. |
| Western dominance | The political, economic, and cultural supremacy of Western nations in the global order at the beginning of the 20th century. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anti-imperialist sentiment | Opposition to the extension of a country's power and influence over other territories and peoples, particularly during the decolonization period following World War II. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until the early 1990s. |
| dissolution of empires | The process by which colonial empires lost control of their territories and granted independence to colonized peoples, particularly in the mid-to-late 20th century. |
| global balance of power | The distribution of military, economic, and political influence among nations on the world stage, which shifted significantly after World War II. |
| restructuring of states | The reorganization and reformation of political boundaries and governmental systems, particularly as former colonies gained independence and new nations were established. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| capitalism | An economic system based on private ownership of property and businesses, with production and prices determined by market forces. |
| communism | A political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society where resources and means of production are collectively owned. |
| ideological struggle | The conflict between opposing belief systems and political philosophies, particularly between capitalism and communism during the Cold War. |
| Non-Aligned Movement | A coalition of countries that refused to align with either the United States or Soviet Union during the Cold War, seeking to maintain independence and pursue their own development. |
| power struggle | Competition between the United States and Soviet Union for global influence and dominance during the Cold War era. |
| superpowers | Nations with the greatest economic, political, and military power and influence on a global scale, specifically the United States and Soviet Union during the Cold War. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Angolan Civil War | A proxy conflict in Angola where the Soviet Union and Cuba supported one faction while the United States supported another during the Cold War. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until the early 1990s. |
| Korean War | A proxy conflict (1950-1953) between communist North Korea supported by the Soviet Union and China, and non-communist South Korea supported by the United States. |
| military alliances | Formal agreements between nations to provide mutual defense and security cooperation, such as those formed during the Cold War. |
| North Atlantic Treaty Organization | The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance formed in 1949 by Western nations led by the United States to counter Soviet expansion in Europe. |
| nuclear proliferation | The spread of nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons technology to additional countries during the Cold War. |
| postcolonial states | Nations that gained independence from colonial rule, particularly in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, and became sites of Cold War competition. |
| proxy wars | Indirect military conflicts between superpowers fought through allied nations or client states rather than direct confrontation between the superpowers themselves. |
| Sandinista-Contras conflict | A proxy war in Nicaragua where the Soviet Union and Cuba supported the Sandinista government while the United States supported the Contra rebels. |
| Warsaw Pact | A military alliance formed in 1955 by the Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellite states as a counterweight to NATO. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Chinese communists | Political and military forces in China that adopted communist ideology and eventually seized power to establish communist rule. |
| communism | A political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society where resources and means of production are collectively owned. |
| communist revolution | A violent or rapid political upheaval resulting in the establishment of a communist government and restructuring of society along communist principles. |
| Great Leap Forward | A Chinese economic and social campaign (1958-1962) under Mao Zedong that aimed to rapidly industrialize and collectivize agriculture, resulting in widespread famine and suffering. |
| internal tension | Domestic conflict and instability within a nation, including civil strife and competing political factions. |
| Japanese aggression | Military expansion and invasion by Japan, particularly in China during the early-to-mid 20th century, which contributed to internal instability. |
| land reform | Government policies aimed at redistributing land ownership, typically from large landowners to peasants or the state. |
| redistribute economic resources | The process of reallocating wealth, land, and material goods from one group or class to another, often to reduce economic inequality. |
| repressive policies | Government actions designed to suppress dissent, limit freedoms, and maintain strict control over the population. |
| socialism | A political and economic ideology advocating for collective or state ownership of resources and means of production, with the goal of reducing economic inequality. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| armed struggle | The use of military force and violent conflict by colonized peoples to achieve independence from imperial rule. |
| autonomy | Self-governance or the right of a region or group to control its own affairs while potentially remaining within a larger political structure. |
| colonial rule | The political control and governance exercised by a colonial power over a territory and its indigenous population. |
| ethnic movements | Organized efforts by people sharing common ethnic or cultural identity to challenge colonial rule or pursue autonomy. |
| imperial boundaries | Political borders established by imperial powers that often divided ethnic, religious, or regional groups. |
| imperial rule | The political control and governance exercised by an imperial power over colonized territories and peoples. |
| independence | The state of being free from colonial or imperial rule and having sovereign control over one's own government and territory. |
| nationalist leaders | Political figures who led movements seeking autonomy or independence from imperial rule in colonized territories. |
| nationalist parties | Political organizations that mobilized populations to pursue independence or autonomy from colonial powers. |
| negotiated independence | The process by which colonies achieved independence through diplomatic agreements and peaceful negotiations with imperial powers. |
| regional movements | Organized efforts by people in specific geographic areas to challenge colonial rule or seek greater autonomy. |
| religious movements | Organized efforts based on religious identity or principles that challenged colonial rule or sought independence. |
| secessionist movement | An organized effort by a group to separate from an existing political entity and establish independent governance. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| colonial authorities | The governing powers that exercised control over colonial territories before independence. |
| creation of the state of Israel | The establishment of Israel as an independent nation-state in 1948, following the withdrawal of British mandate authority from Palestine. |
| decolonization | The process by which former colonial territories gained independence from imperial powers, typically after World War II. |
| dissolution of empires | The process by which colonial empires lost control of their territories and granted independence to colonized peoples, particularly in the mid-to-late 20th century. |
| economic development | Government-led efforts to promote growth, industrialization, and modernization of a newly independent state's economy. |
| imperial metropoles | The major cities and centers of former colonizing countries that maintained economic and cultural ties with their former colonies after independence. |
| migration | The movement of former colonial subjects from newly independent states to former colonizing countries, maintaining cultural and economic connections. |
| nationalist developments | The growth of nationalist movements and the emergence of nation-states based on shared identity, culture, or political ideology. |
| Partition of India | The 1947 division of British India into two independent nations: India and Pakistan, resulting in massive population displacement and communal violence. |
| political boundaries | The borders and territorial divisions established by governments, often redrawn during decolonization to create new independent states. |
| population displacement | The forced or voluntary movement of people from their original territories, often resulting from political or territorial changes. |
| resettlement | The process of relocating populations to new territories, often as a result of political reorganization or conflict. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| militarized states | States that have organized their governments and societies around military power and the preparation for or conduct of warfare. |
| military-industrial complex | The interconnected relationship between military institutions, defense industries, and government that influences political and economic policy. |
| nonviolence | A political and social strategy of opposing power structures and achieving change through peaceful means rather than armed conflict or violence. |
| political change | Transformation in systems of governance, power distribution, or political structures. |
| terrorism | The use of violence against civilians to create fear and achieve political aims. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Afghanistan invasion | The Soviet Union's military intervention in Afghanistan beginning in 1979, which became a costly conflict that drained Soviet resources and contributed to internal discontent. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until the early 1990s. |
| economic weakness | The deteriorating economic conditions in communist countries, including stagnation, inefficiency, and inability to compete with Western economies, which undermined public support for communist regimes. |
| military and technological development | Advances in U.S. weapons systems, defense capabilities, and technology that increased military superiority and contributed to Soviet inability to maintain competitive parity. |
| public discontent | Growing dissatisfaction and unrest among citizens in communist countries regarding political repression, economic hardship, and lack of freedoms. |
| Soviet Union | The communist superpower that existed from 1922 to 1991, led by the Communist Party and headed by leaders such as Mikhail Gorbachev during its final years. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anti-imperialist sentiment | Opposition to the extension of a country's power and influence over other territories and peoples, particularly during the decolonization period following World War II. |
| Cold War | The ideological and geopolitical conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies that lasted from the end of World War II until the early 1990s. |
| dissolution of empires | The process by which colonial empires lost control of their territories and granted independence to colonized peoples, particularly in the mid-to-late 20th century. |
| Eastern Hemisphere | The half of the Earth east of the Prime Meridian, including Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. |
| global institutions | International organizations and associations created to coordinate policies and address issues affecting multiple nations. |
| ideological conflict | A struggle between opposing systems of beliefs, values, and political principles. |
| self-government | The right and ability of a people or state to govern themselves without external control or interference. |
| Western Hemisphere | The half of the Earth west of the Prime Meridian, including North and South America. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| air travel | Transportation technology using aircraft to move people and goods, significantly reducing travel time and geographic distance. |
| antibiotics | Medical innovations that increased the ability of humans to survive and live longer lives. |
| birth control | More effective forms of contraception that gave women greater control over fertility and transformed reproductive practices. |
| cellular communication | A wireless mode of communication using cellular networks to transmit voice and data, reducing geographic distance. |
| commercial agriculture | Large-scale farming focused on producing crops for market sale, which increased productivity through the Green Revolution. |
| fertility rates | The rate of reproduction in a population, which declined in much of the world due to access to birth control. |
| Green Revolution | Agricultural innovations using chemically and genetically modified forms of agriculture that increased productivity and sustained growing populations. |
| internet | A global system of interconnected networks that enables digital communication and information exchange across geographic distances. |
| nuclear power | An energy technology that raised productivity and increased the production of material goods after 1900. |
| petroleum | A fossil fuel energy source used to raise productivity and increase the production of material goods in the modern world. |
| radio communication | A mode of communication using electromagnetic waves to transmit information over distances, reducing geographic barriers. |
| shipping containers | Standardized containers used in transportation that reduced the problem of geographic distance by enabling efficient movement of goods. |
| vaccines | Medical innovations that increased the ability of humans to survive and live longer lives. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| 1918 influenza pandemic | A global outbreak of influenza that spread rapidly across the world in 1918, causing millions of deaths and serving as a major emergent epidemic disease. |
| Alzheimer's disease | A neurodegenerative disease associated with increased longevity and aging populations in the 20th century. |
| cholera | A bacterial disease spread through contaminated water that is associated with poverty and inadequate sanitation systems. |
| diseases associated with increased longevity | Chronic diseases such as heart disease and Alzheimer's disease that occur at higher rates as populations live longer and age. |
| diseases associated with poverty | Infectious diseases that persist in populations with limited access to clean water, sanitation, healthcare, and adequate nutrition, including malaria, tuberculosis, and cholera. |
| Ebola | A viral disease that emerged as an epidemic threat to human populations, characterized by high mortality rates and rapid transmission. |
| emergent epidemic diseases | New infectious diseases that emerge and spread rapidly as threats to human populations, causing widespread illness and social disruption. |
| environmental factors | Physical and natural conditions such as climate, geography, and natural resources that influence economic development and trade patterns. |
| heart disease | A chronic disease associated with increased longevity that became more prevalent as populations aged in the 20th century. |
| HIV/AIDS | A viral disease that emerged as a major pandemic in the late 20th century, causing widespread social disruption and spurring medical research advances. |
| malaria | A parasitic disease transmitted by mosquitoes that causes fever and is associated with poverty and inadequate public health infrastructure. |
| social disruption | Significant disturbance to normal social, economic, and political functioning caused by disease outbreaks and epidemics. |
| technological and medical advances | Innovations in medicine, public health, and technology developed in response to disease outbreaks and epidemics. |
| tuberculosis | A bacterial respiratory disease associated with poverty, overcrowding, and poor living conditions that persisted as a major health threat. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| air quality | The measure of pollutants and contaminants in the atmosphere that affect human health and the environment. |
| climate change | Long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather patterns, often attributed to the release of greenhouse gases and other human activities. |
| deforestation | The large-scale removal or clearing of forests, typically to make way for other land uses or due to human activity. |
| desertification | The process by which fertile land gradually transforms into desert, often due to drought, climate change, or unsustainable land use practices. |
| environmental changes | Alterations to natural systems and ecosystems resulting from human activity or natural processes. |
| fresh water consumption | The use and depletion of freshwater resources from sources such as rivers, lakes, and groundwater for human activities. |
| greenhouse gases | Gases released into the atmosphere that trap heat and contribute to global warming and climate change. |
| resource competition | The struggle between groups or nations for access to and control of limited natural resources. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Association of Southeast Asian Nations | A regional organization of Southeast Asian countries established to promote political and economic cooperation among member states. |
| economic liberalization | The process of reducing government restrictions and regulations on economic activity to allow greater private enterprise and market competition. |
| free-market economic policies | Government strategies that promote minimal state intervention in the economy, allowing market forces to determine prices, production, and distribution of goods and services. |
| global economy | The interconnected system of economic production, trade, and financial flows that spans across nations and continents. |
| industrial production | The manufacturing of goods on a large scale using machinery and factories. |
| information and communications technology | Digital tools and systems used for processing, storing, and transmitting information, including computers, the internet, and telecommunications networks. |
| knowledge economies | Economic systems based primarily on the production, distribution, and use of information and intellectual capital rather than physical goods or raw materials. |
| manufacturing | The process of converting raw materials into finished goods through industrial production. |
| multinational corporations | Large business enterprises that operate and have investments in multiple countries. |
| North American Free Trade Agreement | A regional trade agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico that eliminated tariffs and reduced trade barriers among the three nations. |
| regional trade agreements | Formal arrangements between neighboring or geographically proximate countries to reduce trade barriers and increase economic cooperation. |
| World Trade Organization | An international organization established to regulate and facilitate trade between nations and resolve trade disputes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| apartheid | A system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination that was enforced in South Africa, which was eventually dismantled. |
| caste reservation | A system in India that reserves positions in education and employment for members of historically disadvantaged castes to promote equality. |
| global feminism movements | Worldwide movements advocating for women's equality and challenging gender-based discrimination across different societies and cultures. |
| Green Belt Movement | An environmental movement founded by Wangari Maathai in Kenya focused on tree planting, environmental conservation, and women's empowerment. |
| Greenpeace | An international environmental organization that campaigns to protect the environment and promote sustainability. |
| Liberation theology | A theological movement in Latin America that emphasized social justice and the liberation of the poor and oppressed from economic and political inequality. |
| Negritude movement | A cultural and political movement that celebrated African and African diaspora identity and challenged racist assumptions about Black people. |
| rights-based discourses | Arguments and movements centered on asserting and protecting fundamental human rights, challenging traditional power structures and inequalities. |
| social categories | Divisions of society based on characteristics such as race, class, gender, and religion that organize social structures and relationships. |
| U.N. Universal Declaration of Human Rights | An international document adopted by the United Nations that established fundamental human rights protections for all people, including children, women, and refugees. |
| World Fair Trade Organization | An international organization that promotes fair trade practices to ensure equitable economic relationships between producers and consumers globally. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Bollywood | The Hindi-language film industry based in India that produces movies consumed globally. |
| consumer culture | A culture centered on the consumption of goods and services that became globalized and transcended national borders. |
| global brands | Commercial companies and products recognized and consumed internationally across multiple countries and continents. |
| global consumerism | The worldwide spread of consumer culture and the consumption of standardized products and brands across different countries. |
| global culture | Shared cultural practices, values, and products that transcend national borders and are consumed across multiple countries and regions. |
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and integration of cultures, economies, and societies across the world. |
| hip-hop | A music and cultural movement originating in the United States that spread globally and became a major form of popular culture. |
| Hollywood | The American film industry that produces movies distributed and consumed worldwide. |
| K-pop | Korean popular music that achieved global commercial success and cultural influence in the 21st century. |
| popular culture | Arts, entertainment, and consumer culture that became increasingly global and reflected the influence of globalized society. |
| reggae | A music genre originating from Jamaica that became a global cultural phenomenon in the late 20th century. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| anti-IMF activism | Organized resistance and protest movements against the policies and influence of the International Monetary Fund. |
| anti-World Bank activism | Organized resistance and protest movements against the policies and influence of the World Bank. |
| cultural globalization | The spread and exchange of cultural practices, values, and ideas across national and regional boundaries. |
| economic globalization | The integration of national economies into a global system through trade, investment, and the movement of goods and capital. |
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and integration of cultures, economies, and societies across the world. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and integration of cultures, economies, and societies across the world. |
| international cooperation | Collaborative efforts and agreements among states to address common problems and achieve shared objectives. |
| international interactions | Diplomatic, economic, and political exchanges and relationships between different states and nations. |
| international organizations | Formal institutions created by multiple states to coordinate actions and address shared concerns on a global scale. |
| United Nations | An international organization formed after World War II with the primary goals of maintaining world peace and facilitating cooperation among nations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| air travel | Transportation technology using aircraft to move people and goods, significantly reducing travel time and geographic distance. |
| antibiotics | Medical innovations that increased the ability of humans to survive and live longer lives. |
| birth control | More effective forms of contraception that gave women greater control over fertility and transformed reproductive practices. |
| cellular communication | A wireless mode of communication using cellular networks to transmit voice and data, reducing geographic distance. |
| commercial agriculture | Large-scale farming focused on producing crops for market sale, which increased productivity through the Green Revolution. |
| consumer culture | A culture centered on the consumption of goods and services that became globalized and transcended national borders. |
| fertility rates | The rate of reproduction in a population, which declined in much of the world due to access to birth control. |
| Green Revolution | Agricultural innovations using chemically and genetically modified forms of agriculture that increased productivity and sustained growing populations. |
| internet | A global system of interconnected networks that enables digital communication and information exchange across geographic distances. |
| nuclear power | An energy technology that raised productivity and increased the production of material goods after 1900. |
| petroleum | A fossil fuel energy source used to raise productivity and increase the production of material goods in the modern world. |
| popular culture | Arts, entertainment, and consumer culture that became increasingly global and reflected the influence of globalized society. |
| radio communication | A mode of communication using electromagnetic waves to transmit information over distances, reducing geographic barriers. |
| rights-based discourses | Arguments and movements centered on asserting and protecting fundamental human rights, challenging traditional power structures and inequalities. |
| science and technology | Systematic knowledge and practical applications that altered understanding of the universe and natural world from 1900 to present. |
| shipping containers | Standardized containers used in transportation that reduced the problem of geographic distance by enabling efficient movement of goods. |
| vaccines | Medical innovations that increased the ability of humans to survive and live longer lives. |
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