| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| consumer goods | Products manufactured for purchase and use by individual consumers rather than for further production or business use. |
| Enlightenment | An 18th-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, empiricism, and new ways of understanding the natural world and human relationships. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system combining industrial production with capitalist principles, where private individuals and companies own and control the means of production for profit. |
| Industrial Revolution | The period of rapid industrial growth and social change, roughly from 1750 to 1900, characterized by the shift from agrarian economies to industrial production. |
| nation-states | Sovereign political units with defined territories, centralized governments, and populations sharing a common identity or nationality. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and the desire for national independence and self-determination. |
| natural rights | Fundamental rights believed to belong to all individuals by virtue of their humanity, a key concept developed by Enlightenment philosophers. |
| railroads | Transportation networks powered by steam engines that enabled exploration, resource development, and increased trade globally. |
| rebellion | An organized resistance or uprising against existing governmental authority, common during the 18th century. |
| revolution | A fundamental and often violent overthrow of an existing government or social system, occurring frequently in the 18th century. |
| social contract | A political theory developed by Enlightenment philosophers describing an agreement between individuals and government to establish legitimate authority. |
| steamships | Vessels powered by steam engines that facilitated global exploration, trade, and migration across oceans. |
| telegraph | A communication technology that transmitted messages over long distances, enabling rapid communication for trade and coordination. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abolition of slavery | The movement to end the institution of slavery and free enslaved people. |
| empiricist approaches | Methods of understanding based on observation and experience rather than theory or tradition alone. |
| Enlightenment ideas | Philosophical concepts from the Enlightenment period emphasizing reason, individual rights, and scientific thinking that influenced social and political reform movements. |
| Enlightenment philosophies | Intellectual movements of the 17th and 18th centuries that applied reason and empirical observation to understand the natural world and human relationships, questioning established traditions. |
| expansion of rights | The process of extending legal protections and freedoms to broader segments of society, including voting rights and personal liberties. |
| feminism | A movement advocating for women's rights and equality between genders in political, social, and economic spheres. |
| gender hierarchies | Systems of ranked social and political authority based on gender, typically placing men in positions of greater power and privilege. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and the desire for national independence and self-determination. |
| natural rights | Fundamental rights believed to belong to all individuals by virtue of their humanity, a key concept developed by Enlightenment philosophers. |
| political hierarchies | Systems of ranked authority and power distribution in government and political institutions. |
| reform movements | Organized efforts to change and improve social, political, or economic systems based on new ideas and principles. |
| serfdom | A feudal system in which peasants were bound to the land and owed labor and obligations to a lord. |
| social contract | A political theory developed by Enlightenment philosophers describing an agreement between individuals and government to establish legitimate authority. |
| suffrage | The right to vote in political elections and decisions. |
| women's suffrage | The right of women to vote in political elections. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| American Revolution | The 1775-1783 conflict in which thirteen British colonies in North America rebelled against British rule and established the independent United States of America. |
| Balkan nationalisms | 19th-century nationalist movements in the Balkan region seeking independence from Ottoman rule and national self-determination. |
| Declaration of Independence | The 1776 American document declaring the thirteen colonies' separation from British rule and asserting principles of individual rights and popular sovereignty. |
| Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen | The 1789 French revolutionary document establishing principles of individual rights, equality, and popular sovereignty during the French Revolution. |
| democracy | A system of government in which power is held by the people, either directly or through elected representatives. |
| Enlightenment philosophers | 18th-century European thinkers who promoted ideas of reason, individual rights, and limits on governmental authority, influencing revolutionary movements. |
| French Revolution | The 1789-1799 period of radical social and political upheaval in France that overthrew the monarchy and established democratic ideals. |
| German unification | The 19th-century process of consolidating German-speaking territories into a single nation-state under Prussian leadership. |
| Haitian Revolution | The 1791-1804 rebellion in Haiti that resulted in the abolition of slavery and the establishment of an independent nation, the first successful slave revolution. |
| imperialism | The policy and practice of extending a country's power and influence over other territories and peoples, typically through colonization and military force. |
| independence | The state of being free from colonial or imperial rule and having sovereign control over one's own government and territory. |
| Italian unification | The 19th-century process of consolidating Italian territories into a single nation-state, completed in 1871. |
| Latin American independence movements | Early 19th-century rebellions across Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Central and South America that led to the establishment of independent nations. |
| liberalism | A 19th-century ideology emphasizing individual rights, representative government, and limits on governmental power. |
| monarchy | A system of government in which power is held by a single ruler, typically a king or queen, often inherited through family lines. |
| nation-states | Sovereign political units with defined territories, centralized governments, and populations sharing a common identity or nationality. |
| national identity | A sense of commonality and belonging shared by people based on language, religion, social customs, territory, or shared history. |
| nationalism | A political ideology emphasizing loyalty to one's nation and the desire for national independence and self-determination. |
| Ottomanism | An ideology promoting loyalty to the Ottoman Empire and its multi-ethnic state, emphasizing unity across diverse populations. |
| political authority | The legitimate power to govern and make decisions within a state or political entity. |
| republic | A system of government in which power rests with citizens and their elected representatives, rather than with a monarch. |
| revolutions | Sudden, violent, or complete overthrow of an existing government or political system, often resulting in fundamental social and political change. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural productivity | The efficiency and output of farming, including improved crop yields and production methods that freed labor for industrial work. |
| capital accumulation | The gathering of wealth and resources available for investment in new industries, machines, and production. |
| coal | A fossil fuel formed from ancient plant material, widely used as an energy source during the Industrial Revolution. |
| fossil fuels | Energy resources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal and oil, that powered industrial development. |
| Industrial Revolution | The period of rapid industrial growth and social change, roughly from 1750 to 1900, characterized by the shift from agrarian economies to industrial production. |
| internal combustion engine | An engine that generates power by burning fuel inside a cylinder, used to power vehicles and machinery. |
| iron | A metal element essential for manufacturing machinery, tools, and infrastructure during industrial production. |
| oil | A fossil fuel extracted from underground deposits, used as an energy source and raw material for industrial production. |
| private property | Legal ownership of land and resources by individuals or corporations, which incentivized investment in industrial development. |
| steam engine | A machine that converts heat energy from burning fuel into mechanical power, enabling factories and transportation to operate independently of water power. |
| timber | Wood harvested from forests, used as a raw material for construction and fuel during industrial development. |
| urbanization | The process of population concentration in cities and the growth of urban areas as a result of migration and industrialization. |
| waterways | Natural or artificial channels of water, such as rivers and canals, used for transportation of goods and power for mills. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| first Industrial Revolution | The period of rapid industrial development characterized by the spread of steam-powered manufacturing, primarily in European countries and the United States. |
| global manufacturing | The worldwide production of manufactured goods, with different regions' shares changing as industrial production methods spread unevenly across the world. |
| iron works | Facilities for producing iron and iron goods, an important manufacturing sector in India that experienced decline during the spread of industrialization. |
| modes of production | Different methods and systems of manufacturing and creating goods, such as steam-powered industrial production versus traditional craft production. |
| shipbuilding | The construction of ships, an important manufacturing industry in India and Southeast Asia that declined in global share during industrialization. |
| steam-powered industrial production | Manufacturing processes that use steam engines to power machinery, which became widespread in European countries and the U.S. during the first Industrial Revolution. |
| textile production | The manufacturing of cloth and fabric goods, a major industry in India and Egypt that saw its global share decline as industrial production spread. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| coal | A fossil fuel formed from ancient plant material, widely used as an energy source during the Industrial Revolution. |
| electricity | A form of energy harnessed and distributed during the second industrial revolution to power factories and transportation. |
| fossil fuels | Energy resources formed from ancient organic matter, including coal and oil, that powered industrial development. |
| internal combustion engine | An engine that generates power by burning fuel inside a cylinder, used to power vehicles and machinery. |
| oil | A fossil fuel extracted from underground deposits, used as an energy source and raw material for industrial production. |
| precision machinery | Finely engineered machines developed during the second industrial revolution for accurate and efficient production. |
| railroads | Transportation networks powered by steam engines that enabled exploration, resource development, and increased trade globally. |
| second industrial revolution | The period in the second half of the 19th century characterized by new production methods in steel, chemicals, electricity, and precision machinery. |
| steam engine | A machine that converts heat energy from burning fuel into mechanical power, enabling factories and transportation to operate independently of water power. |
| steamships | Vessels powered by steam engines that facilitated global exploration, trade, and migration across oceans. |
| steel production | The manufacturing process of steel, which was revolutionized during the second industrial revolution to increase efficiency and output. |
| telegraph | A communication technology that transmitted messages over long distances, enabling rapid communication for trade and coordination. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cotton textile industry | The manufacturing sector focused on producing cotton fabrics and textiles, a key industry during industrialization. |
| economic strategies | Deliberate policies and approaches used by states and empires to manage production, trade, and resource allocation. |
| Industrial Revolution | The period of rapid industrial growth and social change, roughly from 1750 to 1900, characterized by the shift from agrarian economies to industrial production. |
| Meiji Era | The period of Japanese history (1868-1912) marked by rapid modernization, industrialization, and the emergence of Japan as a regional power. |
| state-sponsored industrialization | Government-directed efforts to develop manufacturing and industrial capacity within a nation's economy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| banking and finance | Financial institutions and practices that manage money, credit, and investment to support economic activity and trade. |
| free markets | Economic systems where prices and production are determined by supply and demand with minimal government regulation. |
| free trade | An economic policy that reduces or eliminates tariffs and trade barriers to allow goods and services to move freely between nations. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system combining industrial production with capitalist principles, where private individuals and companies own and control the means of production for profit. |
| laissez-faire capitalism | An economic system based on minimal government intervention in the economy, allowing market forces and individual self-interest to drive production and distribution. |
| limited-liability corporations | Business organizations where owners' financial responsibility is limited to their investment, protecting personal assets from business debts. |
| mercantilism | An economic system where nations accumulate wealth through trade surpluses and the acquisition of precious metals, with government regulation of commerce to benefit the state. |
| stock markets | Institutions where shares of companies are bought and sold, allowing businesses to raise capital and investors to own portions of enterprises. |
| transnational businesses | Large-scale commercial enterprises that operate across multiple countries and engage in international trade and production. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| communism | A political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society where resources and means of production are collectively owned. |
| industrial capitalism | An economic system combining industrial production with capitalist principles, where private individuals and companies own and control the means of production for profit. |
| industrializing states | Nations undergoing the transition from agrarian to industrial economies through mechanized production and factory systems. |
| labor unions | Organizations formed by workers to collectively advocate for improved working conditions, limited working hours, and higher wages. |
| reforms | Changes made to political, social, educational, or urban systems in response to perceived problems or demands for improvement. |
| socialism | A political and economic ideology advocating for collective or state ownership of resources and means of production, with the goal of reducing economic inequality. |
| workers' movements | Organized efforts by workers to challenge existing economic and social conditions and promote alternative visions of society. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| global capitalism | An economic system based on private ownership, market competition, and profit-seeking that operates on a worldwide scale. |
| housing shortages | Insufficient availability of adequate housing to meet the needs of growing urban populations during rapid industrialization. |
| Industrial Revolution | The period of rapid industrial growth and social change, roughly from 1750 to 1900, characterized by the shift from agrarian economies to industrial production. |
| industrial working class | A social class of laborers who worked in factories and industries for wages, emerging as a distinct group during industrialization. |
| infrastructure | The basic physical systems and facilities, such as roads, water systems, and sanitation, needed to support urban populations. |
| middle class | A social class that emerged during industrialization, typically composed of merchants, professionals, and business owners with moderate wealth and education. |
| pollution | The contamination of air, water, and land by industrial waste and byproducts, a major consequence of rapid industrialization. |
| poverty | The state of lacking sufficient income and resources to meet basic needs for food, shelter, and other necessities. |
| public health crises | Widespread health emergencies affecting populations, such as disease outbreaks and epidemics resulting from poor urban conditions. |
| social hierarchies | The ranking and organization of social groups based on factors such as wealth, occupation, and status within a society. |
| standards of living | The level of material comfort and access to goods, services, and resources available to individuals or groups in society. |
| urbanization | The process of population concentration in cities and the growth of urban areas as a result of migration and industrialization. |
| wage-earning jobs | Employment positions where workers receive payment in the form of wages or salaries for their labor. |