| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural innovation | New techniques, tools, or methods that improved farming productivity and output. |
| artisanal labor | Skilled manual work performed by craftspeople producing goods by hand. |
| branches of Buddhism | Different schools and interpretations of Buddhist teachings that developed and spread across Asia, such as Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism. |
| Buddhism | A major world religion and philosophical tradition that spread throughout Asia via trade networks. |
| Chinese cultural traditions | The customs, beliefs, practices, and values that originated in China and were transmitted across generations and to neighboring regions. |
| commercialized economy | An economy increasingly based on buying and selling goods through markets and trade rather than subsistence or barter. |
| Confucianism | A philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius that emphasized social hierarchy, filial piety, and proper conduct, used by Chinese dynasties to justify their rule. |
| imperial bureaucracy | A centralized system of government administration used by empires like the Song Dynasty to organize and control state functions. |
| manufacturing innovation | New techniques, tools, or methods that improved the production of goods and crafted items. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| peasant labor | Work performed by rural agricultural workers whose labor intensified to meet increased demand for food and goods in expanding trade networks. |
| productive capacity | The ability of a society or region to produce goods, which increased due to expanded trade networks and technological innovations. |
| Song China | A Chinese dynasty that ruled from 960-1279 CE and utilized Confucianism and imperial bureaucracy to maintain its authority. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Abbasid Caliphate | The Islamic empire that ruled from the 8th to 13th centuries; its fragmentation in the 12th-13th centuries led to the emergence of new Islamic political entities. |
| advances in literature | Literary innovations and creative works produced by Islamic scholars and writers. |
| advances in mathematics | Mathematical innovations and developments made by Islamic scholars that contributed to the advancement of the discipline. |
| advances in medicine | Medical innovations and improvements in medical knowledge developed by Islamic physicians and scholars. |
| belief systems | Organized sets of religious and philosophical ideas that shape the values, practices, and social structures of societies. |
| Christianity | A monotheistic religion whose core beliefs and practices shaped societies in Africa and Asia during the period from 1200-1450. |
| Dar al-Islam | The Islamic world or the lands under Islamic rule and cultural influence. |
| Delhi sultanates | Muslim sultanates that ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent, establishing Islamic political authority in South Asia. |
| Greek moral and natural philosophy | Ancient Greek philosophical traditions concerning ethics and the study of the natural world that were preserved and commented upon by Muslim scholars. |
| House of Wisdom | An intellectual center in Abbasid Baghdad where scholars translated, preserved, and advanced knowledge in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. |
| intellectual innovation | The development of new ideas, discoveries, and advances in knowledge within Islamic civilization during this period. |
| Islam | A monotheistic religion founded in the 7th century based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran. |
| Islamic states | Political entities governed by Islamic rulers that emerged as the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented, often dominated by Turkic peoples. |
| Judaism | An ancient monotheistic religion whose beliefs and practices continued to influence societies in Africa and Asia from 1200-1450. |
| Mamluk sultanate | A military state in Egypt ruled by the Mamluks, a slave-soldier class that became a dominant political force in the Islamic world. |
| military expansion | The process of extending territorial control and political authority through military conquest and warfare. |
| Muslim rule | The political authority and governance exercised by Islamic states and leaders over territories in Afro-Eurasia. |
| religious practices | The rituals, customs, and observances through which believers express and live out their faith traditions. |
| Seljuk Empire | A major Muslim state and empire that ruled parts of Asia Minor, the Levant, and Persia during the medieval period. |
| Sufis | Islamic mystics and spiritual teachers who played a key role in spreading Islam through personal devotion and missionary activities. |
| translation movement | The systematic effort by Muslim scholars to translate and preserve Greek, Persian, and other texts into Arabic. |
| Turkic peoples | Central Asian ethnic groups who came to dominate many of the new Islamic political entities that emerged after the Abbasid Caliphate's fragmentation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| belief systems | Organized sets of religious and philosophical ideas that shape the values, practices, and social structures of societies. |
| Bhakti movement | A Hindu religious movement emphasizing devotion to a personal deity and emotional connection to the divine, influential in South Asia during this period. |
| Buddhism | A major world religion and philosophical tradition that spread throughout Asia via trade networks. |
| Buddhist monasticism | The religious practice of Buddhist monks and nuns living in monastic communities devoted to spiritual discipline and the study of Buddhist teachings. |
| core beliefs and practices | The fundamental doctrines and rituals that define and are central to a particular religion or belief system. |
| Hinduism | A major world religion originating in South Asia, characterized by diverse beliefs, practices, and a complex pantheon of deities. |
| Islam | A monotheistic religion founded in the 7th century based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran. |
| Khmer Empire | A major Southeast Asian state centered in Cambodia that maintained power through agricultural innovation, religious patronage, and administrative systems. |
| Majapahit | A maritime empire in Southeast Asia (13th-15th centuries) that maintained power through naval control and tributary relationships with neighboring states. |
| Rajput kingdoms | Hindu warrior states in North and Central India that maintained power through military prowess and feudal political structures. |
| Sinhala dynasties | Ruling families in Sri Lanka that maintained power through control of the island's resources and Buddhist religious authority. |
| Srivijaya Empire | A maritime Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia (7th-13th centuries) that controlled trade routes and maintained power through naval dominance. |
| state building | The process by which political entities establish and strengthen their governmental institutions, territorial control, and administrative systems. |
| Sufism | A mystical branch of Islam emphasizing spiritual experience and personal connection to God, which spread through South and Southeast Asia. |
| Sukhothai kingdom | A Thai state in Southeast Asia (13th-15th centuries) that developed power through administrative organization and cultural patronage. |
| Vijayanagara Empire | A major Hindu state in South India (1336-1646) that maintained power through military strength and administrative organization. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Aztec Empire | A major Mesoamerican state system that dominated central Mexico from the 14th to 16th centuries, known for its military expansion and complex administrative structure. |
| Inca Empire | A large South American state system that expanded across the Andes region from the 13th century onward, characterized by centralized control and sophisticated infrastructure. |
| Mississippi culture | A complex chiefdom-based society in North America (circa 1000-1500 CE) centered in the Mississippi River valley, known for its hierarchical political organization and monumental architecture. |
| state systems | Networks of organized political entities within regions that demonstrated expansion in scope and reach during this period. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ethiopia | An African state that maintained political independence and developed a unique Christian kingdom in the Horn of Africa during this period. |
| Great Zimbabwe | A major African state and civilization in southern Africa (1100-1450) known for its stone architecture and control of regional trade. |
| Hausa kingdoms | A collection of city-states in West Africa (present-day Nigeria) that developed as centers of trade and political power. |
| state systems | Networks of organized political entities within regions that demonstrated expansion in scope and reach during this period. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agriculture | The practice of cultivating crops and raising livestock, which formed the economic foundation of European society from 1200 to 1450. |
| Christianity | A monotheistic religion whose core beliefs and practices shaped societies in Africa and Asia during the period from 1200-1450. |
| coerced labor | Forced labor systems in which workers are compelled to work against their will, including serfdom and other forms of unfree labor. |
| decentralized monarchies | Kingdoms where royal power was limited and shared with regional nobles and lords rather than concentrated in a single central authority. |
| feudalism | A political and economic system based on the relationship between lords and vassals, where land was exchanged for military service and loyalty. |
| Islam | A monotheistic religion founded in the 7th century based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran. |
| Judaism | An ancient monotheistic religion whose beliefs and practices continued to influence societies in Africa and Asia from 1200-1450. |
| manorial system | An economic and social organization of medieval Europe in which peasants worked on a lord's estate (manor) in exchange for protection and the right to cultivate their own plots of land. |
| political decentralization | The distribution of political power and authority away from a central government to regional or local rulers, characteristic of medieval Europe. |
| serfdom | A feudal system in which peasants were bound to the land and owed labor and obligations to a lord. |
| social organization | The hierarchical structure and relationships that define how society is arranged and functions, including roles, classes, and institutions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Abbasid Caliphate | The Islamic empire that ruled from the 8th to 13th centuries; its fragmentation in the 12th-13th centuries led to the emergence of new Islamic political entities. |
| Buddhist states | Political entities in South and Southeast Asia that emerged during this period and were based on Buddhist religious and cultural traditions. |
| Confucianism | A philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius that emphasized social hierarchy, filial piety, and proper conduct, used by Chinese dynasties to justify their rule. |
| continuity | The persistence of established practices, institutions, and traditions in state formation and development across regions. |
| diversity | The variety of different approaches, structures, and characteristics demonstrated by states across various regions during this period. |
| Hindu states | Political entities in South and Southeast Asia that emerged during this period and were based on Hindu religious and cultural traditions. |
| imperial bureaucracy | A centralized system of government administration used by empires like the Song Dynasty to organize and control state functions. |
| innovation | New methods, institutions, and approaches to state formation and governance that emerged during this period. |
| Islamic political entities | Political states and empires established by Islamic rulers, many dominated by Turkic peoples following the fragmentation of the Abbasid Caliphate. |
| Song China | A Chinese dynasty that ruled from 960-1279 CE and utilized Confucianism and imperial bureaucracy to maintain its authority. |
| state building | The process by which political entities establish and strengthen their governmental institutions, territorial control, and administrative systems. |
| state systems | Networks of organized political entities within regions that demonstrated expansion in scope and reach during this period. |