| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| armed trade | Commercial activity backed by military force, used by empires to establish economic dominance and territorial control. |
| cannons | Large artillery weapons that fired projectiles and were essential military tools for land-based empires to establish and maintain control. |
| gunpowder | An explosive mixture used in firearms and cannons that became a crucial military technology for imperial expansion. |
| land-based empires | Empires that expanded and maintained control through territorial conquest and direct governance of contiguous lands, such as the Ottoman, Russian, and Qing empires. |
| Manchu | A land-based empire that expanded in Central and East Asia during the period 1450-1750. |
| Mughal | A land-based empire that expanded in South and Central Asia during the period 1450-1750. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| Safavid Empire | A Persian Islamic empire that ruled from the 16th to 18th century and was predominantly Shi'a Muslim. |
| Safavid-Mughal conflict | A rivalry between the Safavid and Mughal empires in the Middle East and South Asia that resulted from political and religious disputes. |
| Songhai Empire | A major West African empire that dominated the region from the 15th to 16th centuries, known for its control of trans-Saharan trade routes. |
| state rivalries | Competitive conflicts between empires and states over territory, resources, and political influence. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bureaucratic elites | Educated officials and administrators appointed by rulers to manage government functions and maintain centralized control. |
| centralized control | A system of government where power is concentrated in the hands of a central authority rather than distributed among local rulers. |
| consolidate power | To strengthen and secure a ruler's control over their territory and subjects. |
| devshirme | The Ottoman system of recruiting young boys from conquered territories to serve as elite military and administrative officials. |
| divine right | The European political concept that a ruler's authority to govern comes directly from God and cannot be questioned. |
| human sacrifice | The Mexica religious practice of offering human lives to the gods as a means of legitimizing state power and maintaining cosmic order. |
| legitimize | To establish or justify the right of a ruler to hold power through various methods and institutions. |
| military professionals | Trained soldiers and military officers employed by rulers to maintain order and expand state power. |
| monumental architecture | Large-scale buildings and structures constructed by rulers to display power, religious devotion, and state authority. |
| samurai | Japanese military professionals who served feudal lords and were compensated with regular salaries rather than land grants. |
| tax farming | A system where rulers grant the right to collect taxes to private individuals or officials who keep a portion of the collected revenue. |
| tribute collection | The practice of demanding goods, resources, or payments from conquered or subordinate peoples as a sign of submission and source of revenue. |
| zamindar | A Mughal tax collector or landowner who collected taxes on behalf of the state in exchange for a portion of the revenue. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Catholic Reformation | The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, involving religious reforms and efforts to strengthen Catholic faith and practice. |
| Christian traditions | The established practices, doctrines, and beliefs within Christianity that had developed over centuries before the Reformation. |
| Hinduism | A major world religion originating in South Asia, characterized by diverse beliefs, practices, and a complex pantheon of deities. |
| Islam | A monotheistic religion founded in the 7th century based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| Protestant Reformation | A religious movement beginning in the 16th century that challenged Catholic Church authority and led to the establishment of Protestant churches. |
| Safavid Empire | A Persian Islamic empire that ruled from the 16th to 18th century and was predominantly Shi'a Muslim. |
| Shi'a | A branch of Islam whose followers believe in the spiritual authority of the Imams and emphasize the line of succession from the Prophet Muhammad. |
| Sikhism | A monotheistic religion that developed in South Asia during the 15th-16th centuries from interactions between Hindu and Islamic traditions. |
| Sunni | The largest branch of Islam, whose followers accept the Sunna (teachings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad) and the authority of the caliphs. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| armed trade | Commercial activity backed by military force, used by empires to establish economic dominance and territorial control. |
| gunpowder | An explosive mixture used in firearms and cannons that became a crucial military technology for imperial expansion. |
| imperial expansion | The process by which empires extended their territorial control and political authority over new regions and populations. |
| Manchu | A land-based empire that expanded in Central and East Asia during the period 1450-1750. |
| Mughal | A land-based empire that expanded in South and Central Asia during the period 1450-1750. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| Safavid Empire | A Persian Islamic empire that ruled from the 16th to 18th century and was predominantly Shi'a Muslim. |
| syncretic belief systems | Religious or spiritual systems that blend elements from two or more different belief traditions into a new combined practice. |
| transoceanic travel | Long-distance ocean travel across the Atlantic and other major bodies of water that connected the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. |