| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| astronomical charts | Maps and diagrams showing positions of stars and celestial bodies used for navigation and determining latitude at sea. |
| caravel | A small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed in Portugal with triangular sails, used for exploration and trade. |
| carrack | A large, multi-decked sailing ship with high castles at bow and stern, used for long-distance ocean voyages and trade. |
| compass | A navigational instrument using magnetic properties to determine direction, essential for oceanic navigation. |
| fluyt | A Dutch merchant ship designed for efficient cargo transport with a narrow hull and shallow draft, used in 17th-century trade. |
| interregional contacts | Connections and interactions between different geographic regions and their peoples, often resulting in the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. |
| lateen sail | A triangular sail rigged on a long diagonal spar, allowing ships to sail closer to the wind and improving maneuverability. |
| patterns of trade | The established routes, commodities, and commercial networks through which goods were exchanged between regions. |
| technological transfer | The movement and adoption of tools, techniques, and innovations from one region or civilization to another. |
| transoceanic travel | Long-distance ocean travel across the Atlantic and other major bodies of water that connected the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. |
| wind and currents patterns | The predictable movements of ocean winds and water currents that facilitated efficient maritime routes for ships. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| alternative sailing routes | New ocean pathways sought by European explorers to reach Asia, bypassing existing trade routes controlled by other powers. |
| maritime exploration | Voyages by sea undertaken by European states to discover new trade routes and territories, particularly to Africa and Asia. |
| maritime technology | Advancements in ship design, navigation instruments, and sailing techniques that enabled longer and safer ocean voyages. |
| navigational skills | Techniques and knowledge used to determine direction and location at sea, essential for successful maritime exploration. |
| state-supported | Funded, organized, or sponsored by government authorities rather than by private individuals or merchants. |
| states | Political entities or governments that exercised power and authority, particularly in organizing and funding maritime exploration during this period. |
| trading-post empire | A colonial system based on establishing fortified trading stations along coastlines to control trade rather than conquering large territories. |
| transoceanic | Crossing or spanning across oceans, referring to voyages that traveled across major bodies of water between continents. |
| transoceanic trade | Commercial exchange of goods between Europe and distant regions across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. |
| transoceanic travel | Long-distance ocean travel across the Atlantic and other major bodies of water that connected the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Afro-Eurasian crops | Plants and grains from Africa, Europe, and Asia, including sugar and various fruits and grains, that were brought to the Americas by Europeans. |
| American food crops | Plants native to the Americas that became staple crops in Europe, Asia, and Africa following the Columbian Exchange. |
| cash crops | Crops grown primarily for commercial sale and export rather than for local consumption. |
| coerced labor | Forced labor systems in which workers are compelled to work against their will, including serfdom and other forms of unfree labor. |
| Columbian Exchange | The transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and other goods between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres following European contact with the Americas. |
| disease vectors | Organisms, such as mosquitoes and rats, that transmit infectious diseases from one location to another. |
| domesticated animals | Animals brought by Europeans to the Americas, including horses, pigs, and cattle. |
| endemic diseases | Diseases that are naturally present and established in a particular geographic region or population. |
| indigenous populations | The native peoples who originally inhabited territories before imperial conquest and colonization. |
| malaria | A parasitic disease transmitted by mosquitoes that causes fever and is associated with poverty and inadequate public health infrastructure. |
| measles | An infectious disease transmitted from the Eastern Hemisphere to the Americas with devastating effects on indigenous populations. |
| plantations | Large-scale agricultural estates focused on producing cash crops for export, typically using coerced labor. |
| smallpox | A highly contagious disease brought from the Eastern Hemisphere to the Americas that caused massive mortality among indigenous populations. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Asante | A West African state whose growth and influence expanded through participation in maritime and regional trading networks during the 16th-18th centuries. |
| chattel slavery | A labor system in which enslaved people are treated as property that can be bought, sold, and inherited. |
| colonial economies | Economic systems established in colonized territories, typically organized to benefit the colonizing power. |
| economic systems | The organized structures and methods by which societies produce, distribute, and consume goods and services. |
| encomienda | A Spanish colonial labor system that granted colonists control over indigenous peoples' labor in exchange for their protection and conversion to Christianity. |
| global trade networks | Interconnected systems of long-distance commerce linking Europe, Africa, and Asia that expanded significantly after 1450. |
| Gujaratis | Merchants from Gujarat in India who participated in Indian Ocean trade networks. |
| hacienda | A large agricultural estate in Spanish America, typically worked by indigenous peoples or enslaved laborers. |
| indentured servitude | A labor system in which workers, particularly Chinese and Indian migrants, were bound by contract to work for a specified period in exchange for passage and subsistence. |
| Indian Ocean | The ocean region connecting Africa, Asia, and the Middle East where enslaved persons were exported and trade networks operated. |
| Indian Ocean trade | Maritime commerce and exchange networks connecting Africa, Asia, and the Middle East through the Indian Ocean, a major route for goods and ideas from 1450-1750. |
| interregional trade | Commercial exchange of goods across vast geographic distances, connecting multiple continents and regions during the early modern period. |
| intra-Asian trade | Commercial exchange of goods and services between different regions and peoples within Asia. |
| isolationist trade policies | Restrictive governmental strategies adopted by some Asian states to limit foreign economic and cultural influence by controlling or reducing participation in long-distance trade. |
| Javanese | Merchants and traders from Java in Southeast Asia who engaged in Indian Ocean commerce. |
| Kingdom of the Kongo | A Central African state that increased its influence and power through involvement in European-dominated trading networks during the early modern period. |
| labor systems | The organized methods and structures through which societies organize work and the relationships between workers and those who control production. |
| maritime empires | Empires that expanded and maintained control through naval power and overseas colonial possessions rather than contiguous territorial expansion. |
| Mediterranean | The sea region between Europe, Africa, and Asia where enslaved persons were exported during this period. |
| mit'a | An Incan labor system requiring subjects to provide labor service to the state for public works and military service. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| Omanis | Merchants from Oman in the Arabian Peninsula who were active traders in the Indian Ocean region. |
| plantation economy | An economic system based on large-scale agricultural estates that produced cash crops for export, typically relying on enslaved labor. |
| slavery | The system of forced labor in which people are treated as property and compelled to work without freedom or compensation. |
| state building | The process by which political entities establish and strengthen their governmental institutions, territorial control, and administrative systems. |
| Swahili Arabs | Arab merchants and traders active in the Indian Ocean region who participated in trade networks including the slave trade. |
| trading posts | Fortified settlements established by European powers in Africa and Asia to facilitate commercial exchange and control regional trade networks. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| artisan labor | Skilled craft work by specialized producers whose output increased to supply consumer goods demanded by growing global trade networks. |
| Asian goods | Luxury and commercial products from Asia, including spices, silk, porcelain, and tea, that were highly sought after in Atlantic markets. |
| Atlantic trading system | A complex network of trade routes and economic exchanges between Africa, Europe, and the Americas from the 15th to 18th centuries, involving the movement of goods, enslaved persons, and cultural practices. |
| belief systems | Organized sets of religious and philosophical ideas that shape the values, practices, and social structures of societies. |
| chartered monopoly companies | European trading companies granted exclusive rights by their governments to conduct commerce in specific regions, controlling trade networks and colonial enterprises. |
| cultural synthesis | The blending and integration of African, American, and European cultures, beliefs, and practices resulting from contact and interaction through the Atlantic trading system. |
| demographic changes | Significant shifts in population size, distribution, and composition, such as those experienced in Africa due to the trade in enslaved persons. |
| economic strategies | Deliberate policies and approaches used by states and empires to manage production, trade, and resource allocation. |
| enslaved persons | Individuals forcibly removed from their homes and forced into servitude, primarily Africans transported across the Atlantic to the Americas during the period 1450-1750. |
| gender and family restructuring | Changes in family structures, gender roles, and social relationships that occurred in societies affected by the Atlantic trading system and the trade in enslaved persons. |
| global circulation of goods | The worldwide movement and exchange of commodities facilitated by maritime trade routes and commercial networks between continents. |
| global flow of silver | The large-scale movement of silver from Spanish American colonies to Europe and Asia, used as currency to purchase goods and satisfy demand in global markets. |
| global trade | International commercial exchange of goods and services between different regions and states during the early modern period. |
| Indian Ocean trade | Maritime commerce and exchange networks connecting Africa, Asia, and the Middle East through the Indian Ocean, a major route for goods and ideas from 1450-1750. |
| joint-stock companies | Business enterprises in which multiple investors pooled capital to finance exploration and trade, used by rulers and merchants to compete in global commerce. |
| mercantilist policies | Economic strategies employed by European rulers to expand state control over economies and acquire overseas territories through trade regulation and colonial expansion. |
| networks of exchange | Interconnected systems of trade and cultural interaction spanning vast distances, developed during the period c. 1200 to c. 1450. |
| peasant labor | Work performed by rural agricultural workers whose labor intensified to meet increased demand for food and goods in expanding trade networks. |
| regional markets | Local and continental trading networks in Afro-Eurasia that continued to operate using established commercial practices alongside new global trade routes. |
| religious conflicts | Tensions, disputes, or violence arising from differences in religious beliefs, practices, or institutional interests between groups. |
| Songhai Empire | A major West African empire that dominated the region from the 15th to 16th centuries, known for its control of trans-Saharan trade routes. |
| Spanish colonies in the Americas | European colonial territories established by Spain in the Western Hemisphere, which produced significant quantities of silver for global trade. |
| syncretic belief systems | Religious or spiritual systems that blend elements from two or more different belief traditions into a new combined practice. |
| trade routes | Established pathways—both maritime and overland—along which merchants transported goods, ideas, and cultural practices between regions. |
| transoceanic shipping | Maritime transport services that crossed oceans, developed by European merchants to connect distant regions and facilitate long-distance trade. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ana Nzinga | A 17th-century ruler of Ndongo and Matamba in Central Africa who resisted Portuguese colonial expansion and the slave trade. |
| centralization | The concentration of political authority and administrative power in a central government rather than in local or regional authorities. |
| Cossack revolts | Uprisings by Cossack communities against Russian state authority and expansion, particularly in the 17th century. |
| Fronde | A series of civil wars in France during the 17th century involving nobility and the Paris Parlement resisting royal centralization. |
| local resistance | Opposition to state authority and expansion by communities, groups, and populations at the local or regional level. |
| Maratha conflict with Mughals | Military and political resistance by the Maratha Confederacy against Mughal imperial expansion in India. |
| Maroon societies | Communities of formerly enslaved persons who escaped and established independent settlements in the Caribbean and Brazil. |
| Metacom's War | A conflict (1675-1678) between Native American forces led by Metacom and English colonists in New England, also known as King Philip's War. |
| organized resistance | Coordinated and deliberate opposition by groups to challenge existing authorities and state power. |
| Pueblo Revolts | A series of uprisings by Pueblo peoples against Spanish colonial rule in New Mexico, most notably in 1680. |
| state expansion | The process by which a state increases its territorial control and political authority over larger areas and populations. |
| state power | The authority and capacity of a centralized government to control territory, enforce laws, and mobilize resources. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Casta system | A hierarchical racial and social classification system in the Americas that categorized people by ethnic and racial ancestry. |
| economic elites | Groups holding wealth, resources, and influence over economic systems and opportunities. |
| European nobility | The hereditary aristocratic class in Europe that held political power, land ownership, and social status. |
| Mughal Empire | A major Islamic empire in South Asia (16th-18th centuries) known for accommodating religious and ethnic diversity among its subjects. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| Ottoman timars | Land grants given to Ottoman military officials and administrators as a form of compensation and control. |
| political elites | Groups holding power and influence in government and political decision-making. |
| Qing Dynasty | The final imperial dynasty of China (1644-1912) that marked a transition in political and economic elites in China. |
| Russian boyars | Members of the old Russian aristocracy who held significant political and economic power before centralization under the monarchy. |
| social categories | Divisions of society based on characteristics such as race, class, gender, and religion that organize social structures and relationships. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agricultural labor | Work performed in farming and food production, including changes in how laborers were organized and compensated. |
| Atlantic slave trade | The forced migration of millions of Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas to provide labor for colonial economies. |
| economic developments | Changes in production, trade, labor systems, and commercial practices that transformed societies between 1450 and 1750. |
| empires | Large political units that extended control over diverse populations and territories through conquest or colonization. |
| finished products | Manufactured goods that have been processed and are ready for trade or consumption. |
| gender structures | The social roles, responsibilities, and hierarchies assigned to men and women in society. |
| manufacturing systems | The organization and methods of producing goods, including changes in location, technology, and labor arrangements. |
| peasant agriculture | Farming systems based on small-scale production by rural laborers, often tied to land ownership or feudal obligations. |
| plantations | Large-scale agricultural estates focused on producing cash crops for export, typically using coerced labor. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources extracted from the environment, such as cotton, rubber, and metals, used as inputs for factory production. |
| ship designs | Innovations in vessel construction that enabled longer ocean voyages and increased cargo capacity. |
| social structures | The hierarchical organization of society including class, gender roles, and labor systems. |
| technological innovations | New tools, techniques, and designs that improved efficiency in navigation, shipbuilding, and other productive activities. |
| transoceanic travel | Long-distance ocean travel across the Atlantic and other major bodies of water that connected the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. |
| wind and currents patterns | The predictable movements of ocean winds and water currents that facilitated efficient maritime routes for ships. |