| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civil rights | Fundamental freedoms and protections from government interference, such as freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly. |
| civil society | Organizations and institutions that exist between the individual and the state, including NGOs, community groups, and advocacy organizations that operate independently of government. |
| drug trafficking | The illegal production, distribution, and sale of controlled substances across state boundaries or within a state. |
| election fairness | The principle that elections are conducted according to established rules, free from fraud, coercion, or manipulation. |
| equality under law | The principle that all individuals are subject to the same legal standards and protections regardless of status or identity. |
| foreign direct investment | Investment by foreign individuals or companies in productive assets within a country, such as factories, businesses, or infrastructure. |
| internal actors | Individuals, groups, or organizations within a state that influence government decisions and policies, such as civil society organizations, protest movements, and separatist groups. |
| mass protest movements | Large-scale collective action by citizens organized to oppose government policies or demand political change. |
| media bias | The systematic favoritism or prejudice in media coverage that benefits certain political actors or viewpoints over others. |
| political corruption | The abuse of public power or position by government officials for personal gain or private benefit. |
| private capital | Money and financial resources invested by private individuals and businesses rather than by the government. |
| regime stability | The ability of a political system to maintain continuity and resist collapse or fundamental change. |
| regime type | The form or system of government that determines how political power is organized and exercised. |
| rule of law | The principle that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable to the law. |
| separatist group violence | Armed or violent actions by groups seeking to break away from a state or establish independent political control over a territory. |
| state authority | The power and legitimacy of a government to make and enforce laws and policies within its territory. |
| transparency | The degree to which government operations, decisions, and information are open and accessible to the public. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| causation | A relationship where one variable directly produces or causes a change in another variable. |
| comparative political research | The systematic study of political systems across different countries to identify similarities, differences, and patterns. |
| correlation | A statistical relationship where two or more variables change together in a consistent pattern. |
| empirical statements | Claims based on observable facts and objective evidence that can be verified or disproven. |
| Failed States Index | A ranking system that assesses the stability and governance capacity of countries based on various indicators. |
| Freedom House | An international organization that measures and reports on political rights and civil liberties across countries. |
| GDP growth rate | The percentage change in a country's GDP over a specific time period. |
| GDP per capita | The average GDP per person, calculated by dividing total GDP by the population. |
| Gini index | A statistical measure of income inequality within a population, ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality). |
| Gross domestic product (GDP) | The total monetary value of all goods and services produced within a country. |
| Human Development Index (HDI) | A measure of human development that combines life expectancy, education, and income indicators. |
| inferences | Conclusions drawn from evidence and analysis rather than directly stated facts. |
| institutional interactions | The relationships and processes through which different governmental institutions work together or influence one another. |
| normative statements | Claims based on values, beliefs, and judgments about what ought to be rather than what is. |
| political systems | The structures and institutions through which a government exercises authority and makes decisions. |
| qualitative information | Non-numerical data such as descriptions, observations, and interpretations used to understand political phenomena. |
| quantitative information | Data expressed in numerical form that can be measured and analyzed mathematically. |
| quantitative methods | Research techniques that use numerical data and statistical analysis to study political phenomena. |
| regime stability | The ability of a political system to maintain continuity and resist collapse or fundamental change. |
| Transparency International | An international organization that measures and monitors corruption levels in countries worldwide. |
| variables | Factors or characteristics that can change and potentially influence political outcomes or policies. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| authoritarian regime | A system of government characterized by centralized power, limited political freedoms, and restricted citizen participation in decision-making. |
| democratic regime | A system of government in which power is held by the people through elections and representative institutions, with protections for individual rights and freedoms. |
| governments | The set of institutions or individuals legally empowered to make binding decisions for a state. |
| nations | Groups of people with commonalities including race, language, religion, ethnicity, political identity, and aspirations. |
| political power | The authority and ability to make binding decisions and enforce policies within a political system. |
| political systems | The structures and institutions through which a government exercises authority and makes decisions. |
| regime | The fundamental rules that control access to and the exercise of political power, typically enduring from government to government. |
| sovereignty | The right and power of a state to govern itself without outside interference and to exercise independent legal authority over a population in a particular territory. |
| states | Political organizations that combine a permanent population with governing institutions to exercise control over a defined territory with international recognition. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| authoritarian regime | A system of government characterized by centralized power, limited political freedoms, and restricted citizen participation in decision-making. |
| citizen participation | The involvement of citizens in the political process, including voting, activism, and engagement in civic affairs. |
| democratic regime | A system of government in which power is held by the people through elections and representative institutions, with protections for individual rights and freedoms. |
| free and fair elections | Electoral processes in which all eligible citizens have the right to vote, candidates can compete openly, and results are determined by genuine voter choice without manipulation or coercion. |
| hybrid regimes | Political systems that combine elements of both democratic and authoritarian governance. |
| illiberal democracies | Regimes that hold elections but lack protections for individual rights and freedoms, combining democratic procedures with authoritarian practices. |
| military regimes | Authoritarian governments in which the military holds political power and controls the state. |
| one-party states | Authoritarian regimes in which a single political party holds exclusive control over government and typically prohibits opposition parties. |
| rule of law | The principle that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable to the law. |
| separation of powers | The division of government authority among distinct branches—typically executive, legislative, and judicial—to prevent concentration of power. |
| state control of media | The degree to which a government influences, censors, or controls the content and distribution of information through media outlets. |
| theocracy | A form of government in which religious authority and political authority are unified, with religious law serving as the basis for governance. |
| totalitarian governments | Authoritarian regimes that seek to control all aspects of citizens' lives, including political, economic, social, and cultural activities. |
| transparency | The degree to which government operations, decisions, and information are open and accessible to the public. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| authoritarian regime | A system of government characterized by centralized power, limited political freedoms, and restricted citizen participation in decision-making. |
| citizen participation | The involvement of citizens in the political process, including voting, activism, and engagement in civic affairs. |
| civil rights | Fundamental freedoms and protections from government interference, such as freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly. |
| democratic consolidation | The process by which a democratic regime matures through established election rules, separation of powers, and protection of civil liberties, making it resistant to reverting to authoritarianism. |
| democratic regime | A system of government in which power is held by the people through elections and representative institutions, with protections for individual rights and freedoms. |
| democratization | A transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic regime, characterized by increased competition, fairness, and transparency in elections, greater citizen participation, and protection of civil rights and liberties. |
| independent judiciary | A court system that operates free from political interference and can enforce laws and protect civil rights impartially. |
| multiparty competition | A political system in which multiple political parties compete for power and representation. |
| political corruption | The abuse of public power or position by government officials for personal gain or private benefit. |
| proportional representation | An electoral system where political parties receive seats in the legislature proportional to the number of votes they receive, often resulting in multiple parties being represented. |
| rule of law | The principle that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable to the law. |
| separation of powers | The division of government authority among distinct branches—typically executive, legislative, and judicial—to prevent concentration of power. |
| transparency | The degree to which government operations, decisions, and information are open and accessible to the public. |
| universal suffrage | The right of all adult citizens to vote in elections regardless of gender, race, or other characteristics. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| constitutional reforms | Formal changes to a constitution that alter the structure, powers, or distribution of authority within a political system. |
| constitutions | Formal written or unwritten documents that establish the structure, powers, and procedures of a government and define the rights of citizens. |
| devolution | The transfer of political power and authority from central government to regional or local governments. |
| Islamic Sharia law | A legal system based on Islamic religious principles and teachings that governs civil and criminal matters in some countries. |
| legislatures | Elected or appointed bodies responsible for making laws and can serve as a source of political authority. |
| managed democracy | A system that maintains democratic institutions and procedures while concentrating power through mechanisms that favor one party or leader. |
| military forces | Armed organizations that can serve as a source of political power and authority in maintaining regime stability or effecting political change. |
| military rule | A form of government in which the military directly controls political power and governance. |
| multiparty republic | A system of government where multiple political parties compete for power and the state is governed as a republic. |
| political parties | Organized groups that compete for political power and can serve as sources of authority in political systems. |
| popular support | The backing and consent of the general population, which can legitimize political power and authority. |
| regime stability | The ability of a political system to maintain continuity and resist collapse or fundamental change. |
| single-party dominance | A political system in which one political party maintains control over government and limits competition from other parties. |
| sources of authority | The foundations or legitimacy upon which political power is exercised and accepted in a political system. |
| sources of power | The origins or bases from which political authority and control derive in a political system. |
| theocracy | A form of government in which religious authority and political authority are unified, with religious law serving as the basis for governance. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| centralization | The concentration of governmental power at the national level rather than distributing it among regional or local governments. |
| devolution | The transfer of political power and authority from central government to regional or local governments. |
| ethnic cleavages | Deep social divisions within a state based on ethnic or cultural differences that can influence the structure of government. |
| federal system | A system of government in which power is divided among different levels of government, with local governments retaining a degree of autonomy in providing services while the national government reserves certain powers. |
| local autonomy | The degree of self-governance and independent decision-making authority granted to local or regional governments. |
| supranational organizations | Organizations with sovereign authority over member states that can enforce decisions and policies affecting national governments. |
| unitary system | A system of government in which power is concentrated at the national level, resulting in more uniform policies across the state. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| authoritarian regime | A system of government characterized by centralized power, limited political freedoms, and restricted citizen participation in decision-making. |
| authority | The legitimate power held by a government or political system to make and enforce decisions. |
| constitutional provisions | Formal rules and principles outlined in a constitution that can serve as a source of legitimacy for a government. |
| democratic regime | A system of government in which power is held by the people through elections and representative institutions, with protections for individual rights and freedoms. |
| dominant political party | The leading political party whose endorsement can serve as a source of legitimacy for a government. |
| economic growth | An increase in a country's total economic output and productive capacity over time. |
| governmental effectiveness | A source of legitimacy based on a government's ability to accomplish its goals and serve its constituents. |
| ideology | A source of legitimacy based on a system of beliefs and values that guides a government's policies and actions. |
| nationalism | A source of legitimacy based on citizens' identification with and loyalty to their nation. |
| political legitimacy | The acceptance and recognition by citizens that a government has the right to exercise authority and make binding decisions. |
| popular elections | A source of legitimacy in which constituents vote to select their leaders or representatives. |
| regime | The fundamental rules that control access to and the exercise of political power, typically enduring from government to government. |
| religious heritage and organizations | A source of legitimacy derived from a government's connection to religious traditions and institutions. |
| tradition | A source of legitimacy derived from long-established customs and historical practices of governance. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| central power | The authority and control exercised by the national or federal government over a country. |
| charismatic leadership | Leadership based on a leader's exceptional personal qualities and ability to inspire devotion and followership. |
| citizen participation | The involvement of citizens in the political process, including voting, activism, and engagement in civic affairs. |
| delegation of power | The assignment of governmental authority and decision-making responsibilities to lower levels of government or officials. |
| democratization | A transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic regime, characterized by increased competition, fairness, and transparency in elections, greater citizen participation, and protection of civil rights and liberties. |
| devolution | The transfer of political power and authority from central government to regional or local governments. |
| economic development | The process of improving living standards, increasing productivity, and building sustainable economic growth in a country or region. |
| election results | The official outcomes and vote counts from electoral processes that determine winners of political offices. |
| electoral competition | The degree to which multiple political parties compete for votes and representation in elections. |
| institutionalized laws | Formal legal systems and rules that are established, recognized, and enforced by government institutions. |
| peaceful resolution of conflicts | The use of non-violent methods to settle disputes and disagreements between groups or within society. |
| peaceful transfer of power | The orderly and non-violent handover of governmental authority from one leader or party to another. |
| policy effectiveness | The degree to which government policies successfully achieve their intended goals and outcomes. |
| policy innovation | The development and implementation of new or improved government policies to address public issues. |
| political corruption | The abuse of public power or position by government officials for personal gain or private benefit. |
| political efficacy | Citizens' belief that they can understand and influence political processes and government decisions. |
| political legitimacy | The acceptance and recognition by citizens that a government has the right to exercise authority and make binding decisions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cabinet | A group of senior government officials appointed by the chief executive to oversee specific departments and advise on policy. |
| head of government | The chief executive responsible for leading the government, overseeing the bureaucracy, and implementing policy. |
| head of state | The formal representative of a country, often serving ceremonial functions and embodying national sovereignty. |
| impeachment | A formal process by which a legislature can remove a government official from office for misconduct or violation of law. |
| national legislature | The primary lawmaking body of a country, responsible for creating and passing legislation. |
| parliamentary systems | A system of government where the executive branch is drawn from and accountable to the legislative branch (parliament). |
| presidential systems | A system of government where the executive and legislative branches are separate and independently elected. |
| prime minister | The head of government in parliamentary or mixed systems, typically leading the executive branch and overseeing the bureaucracy. |
| semi-presidential systems | A system of government that combines elements of both parliamentary and presidential systems, with both a president and a prime minister. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cabinet ministers | Senior government officials who head executive departments and advise the head of government. |
| censure | A formal expression of disapproval by a legislative body toward a cabinet minister or executive official. |
| checks on the executive branch | Powers and mechanisms that allow other branches of government to limit or constrain executive authority. |
| divided branch powers | The separation of governmental authority among distinct branches, such as executive and legislative branches. |
| executive proposed legislation | Laws or bills introduced by the executive branch for consideration and passage by the legislature. |
| institutional relations | The formal interactions and relationships between different branches or institutions of government. |
| parliamentary systems | A system of government where the executive branch is drawn from and accountable to the legislative branch (parliament). |
| presidential systems | A system of government where the executive and legislative branches are separate and independently elected. |
| question the executive | A parliamentary procedure allowing legislators to formally interrogate and challenge government officials about their policies and decisions. |
| semi-presidential systems | A system of government that combines elements of both parliamentary and presidential systems, with both a president and a prime minister. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cabinet | A group of senior government officials appointed by the chief executive to oversee specific departments and advise on policy. |
| chief executive | The head of the executive branch responsible for implementing and enforcing government policy. |
| civil service | The system of government employees and bureaucratic agencies responsible for administering government functions. |
| commander in chief | The supreme military authority responsible for commanding the armed forces. |
| domestic legislation | Laws and policies enacted by a government affecting its own citizens and internal affairs. |
| Duma | Russia's elected lower chamber that passes legislation and confirms the prime minister. |
| executive institutions | Government bodies, including chief executives and cabinets, responsible for formulating, implementing, and enforcing policy. |
| Expediency Council | In Iran, an advisory committee selected by the Supreme Leader to resolve disputes between the Majles and the Guardian Council. |
| foreign policy | A government's strategy and actions in its relations with other countries. |
| General Secretary | The leader of a communist or socialist political party, holding significant executive authority. |
| Guardian Council | An Iranian supervisory body that ensures legislative actions are compatible with Islam and Sharia law. |
| head of government | The chief executive responsible for leading the government, overseeing the bureaucracy, and implementing policy. |
| head of state | The formal representative of a country, often serving ceremonial functions and embodying national sovereignty. |
| House of Commons | The elected lower chamber of the United Kingdom's Parliament that approves legislation and the prime minister. |
| National People's Congress | China's unicameral legislative body that elects the president, approves the premier, and legitimizes executive policies. |
| premier | A chief minister or head of government in certain political systems. |
| prime minister | The head of government in parliamentary or mixed systems, typically leading the executive branch and overseeing the bureaucracy. |
| Supreme Leader | The highest-ranking political and religious authority in Iran's government system. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| accountability | The responsibility of government officials to answer for their actions and decisions to the public and other governmental institutions. |
| dictators | Authoritarian leaders who hold absolute power and rule without constitutional limitations or democratic accountability. |
| executive leadership | The head of government and their administration responsible for implementing and enforcing laws and policies in a country. |
| executive power | The authority vested in the executive branch to enforce laws, make administrative decisions, and direct government operations. |
| executive term limits | Constitutional or legal restrictions on the number of consecutive or total terms an executive leader can serve in office. |
| lame-duck period | A period during which an officeholder, knowing they cannot run for reelection, has reduced political influence and ability to implement new policies. |
| personality rule | A system of governance where power is concentrated in and dependent on the personal authority and characteristics of an individual leader rather than institutional structures. |
| policy continuity | The maintenance and consistent implementation of established government policies and programs over time. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| abuse of power | The improper or illegal use of executive authority that can justify the removal of executive leadership. |
| executive leaders | The heads of government or state who hold executive power and can be subject to removal procedures. |
| legislative branch | The branch of government responsible for making laws and possessing the power to remove executive leaders through established procedures. |
| removal procedures | The formal processes and mechanisms by which institutions, particularly the legislative branch, can remove executive leadership from office. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bicameral | A legislative system consisting of two separate chambers or houses. |
| Chamber of Deputies | Mexico's elected lower house of Congress that approves legislation, levies taxes, and verifies election outcomes. |
| confirmation powers | The legislative authority to approve or reject executive appointments and nominees. |
| congressional-presidential system | A system of government in which the legislature and executive are separate branches with distinct powers and responsibilities. |
| Duma | Russia's elected lower chamber that passes legislation and confirms the prime minister. |
| Federation Council | Russia's appointed upper chamber that approves budget legislation, treaties, judicial nominees, and troop deployment. |
| Guardian Council | An Iranian supervisory body that ensures legislative actions are compatible with Islam and Sharia law. |
| House of Commons | The elected lower chamber of the United Kingdom's Parliament that approves legislation and the prime minister. |
| House of Lords | The appointed upper chamber of the United Kingdom's Parliament that reviews and amends bills from the Commons as a power check. |
| House of Representatives | Nigeria's elected lower chamber of Congress that holds the power to approve legislation. |
| impeachment | A formal process by which a legislature can remove a government official from office for misconduct or violation of law. |
| legislative functions | The powers and responsibilities of a legislative body, such as approving legislation, confirming appointments, and overseeing budgets. |
| legislative structures | The organizational framework and composition of a country's legislative body, including whether it is unicameral or bicameral. |
| Majles | Iran's elected unicameral legislative body that approves legislation, oversees the budget, and confirms presidential Cabinet nominees. |
| National People's Congress | China's unicameral legislative body that elects the president, approves the premier, and legitimizes executive policies. |
| parliamentary system | A system of government in which the executive branch is accountable to and derives its authority from the legislative branch. |
| parliamentary-hybrid system | A system of government that combines elements of both parliamentary and presidential systems. |
| party-controlled system | A legislative system in which a single political party exercises dominant control over the legislative process and institutions. |
| Senate | An upper legislative chamber; in Mexico, it confirms Supreme Court appointments, approves treaties, and approves federal intervention in state matters. |
| Sharia law | Islamic law derived from the Quran and Islamic tradition that governs religious and civil matters. |
| theocracy | A form of government in which religious authority and political authority are unified, with religious law serving as the basis for governance. |
| unicameral | A legislative system consisting of a single chamber or house. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civil rights | Fundamental freedoms and protections from government interference, such as freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly. |
| Expediency Council | In Iran, an advisory committee selected by the Supreme Leader to resolve disputes between the Majles and the Guardian Council. |
| Guardian Council | An Iranian supervisory body that ensures legislative actions are compatible with Islam and Sharia law. |
| legislative independence | The degree to which a legislature can exercise its powers without undue constraint or control from other governmental institutions. |
| legislative powers | The authority and responsibilities of a legislature to create, amend, and repeal laws. |
| Majles | Iran's elected unicameral legislative body that approves legislation, oversees the budget, and confirms presidential Cabinet nominees. |
| Politburo Standing Committee | In China, the highest decision-making body of the Communist Party that serves as the actual center of state power. |
| political legitimacy | The acceptance and recognition by citizens that a government has the right to exercise authority and make binding decisions. |
| Standing Committee of the National People's Congress | In China, the body that assumes legislative duties when the National People's Congress is not in session, sets the legislative agenda, and interprets the Constitution and laws. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civil rights | Fundamental freedoms and protections from government interference, such as freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly. |
| common law | A legal system based on court decisions and precedents rather than written statutes, used in the United Kingdom and other countries. |
| court of appeals | A court that reviews decisions made by lower courts to determine if legal errors occurred. |
| devolution disputes | Legal conflicts concerning the transfer of powers from a central government to regional or local governments. |
| federalism | A system of government in which power is divided between a central government and regional or state governments. |
| Guardian Council | An Iranian supervisory body that ensures legislative actions are compatible with Islam and Sharia law. |
| human rights | Fundamental rights and freedoms that all people are entitled to, protected by courts and legal systems. |
| Islamic Sharia law | A legal system based on Islamic religious principles and teachings that governs civil and criminal matters in some countries. |
| judicial appointments | The process by which judges are selected and appointed to serve in the judicial system. |
| judicial review | The power of courts to examine laws and government actions to determine if they are constitutional. |
| judiciary | The system of courts and judges in a country that interprets and applies laws and resolves disputes. |
| rule by law | A system in which the state uses laws as a tool to reinforce its own authority, typically associated with authoritarian regimes. |
| rule of law | The principle that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable to the law. |
| Supreme Court | The highest court in a country's judicial system that serves as the final authority on legal matters. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| checks and balances | A system where different branches of government have the power to limit or oversee each other's actions. |
| independent judiciary | A court system that operates free from political interference and can enforce laws and protect civil rights impartially. |
| judicial authority | The power of courts to make decisions and enforce them, including the ability to overturn actions by other branches of government. |
| judicial independence | The degree to which courts can make decisions without interference from other branches of government. |
| judicial removal | The formal processes and procedures by which judges can be removed from their positions. |
| judicial tenure | The length and terms of service for judges in their positions. |
| rule of law | The principle that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable to the law. |
| separation of powers | The division of government authority among distinct branches—typically executive, legislative, and judicial—to prevent concentration of power. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| autonomous | Independent and self-governing, not controlled by the state or government. |
| civil rights | Fundamental freedoms and protections from government interference, such as freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly. |
| civil society | Organizations and institutions that exist between the individual and the state, including NGOs, community groups, and advocacy organizations that operate independently of government. |
| democratization | A transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic regime, characterized by increased competition, fairness, and transparency in elections, greater citizen participation, and protection of civil rights and liberties. |
| government registration and monitoring policies | State regulations that require civil society organizations to register with authorities and allow government oversight of their activities. |
| governmental malfeasance | Illegal, unethical, or improper conduct by government officials or agencies. |
| lobby | To seek to influence government officials and policy decisions on behalf of particular interests or causes. |
| nongovernmental organizations | Independent organizations that operate outside of government control to address social, environmental, or humanitarian issues. |
| nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) | Independent organizations that operate outside of government control to address social, environmental, or humanitarian issues. |
| regime type | The form or system of government that determines how political power is organized and exercised. |
| voluntary associations | Organizations formed by citizens of their own free will to pursue common interests or goals. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| agents of socialization | Institutions and groups such as family, schools, peers, religious institutions, media, and civic organizations that transmit political culture and shape political attitudes and values. |
| authoritarian regime | A system of government characterized by centralized power, limited political freedoms, and restricted citizen participation in decision-making. |
| citizen behavior | The actions and participation patterns of individuals within a political system, influenced by political culture and ideology. |
| democratic regime | A system of government in which power is held by the people through elections and representative institutions, with protections for individual rights and freedoms. |
| individual liberty | The freedoms and rights of individuals within a political system. |
| political culture | The shared values, beliefs, and attitudes of a society that shape how citizens view government, politics, and their role in the political system. |
| political socialization | The lifelong process of acquiring one's beliefs, values, and orientations toward the political system. |
| role of the state | The function and extent of governmental power and responsibility in society, which varies across different political ideologies. |
| social order | The organized structure and stability of society maintained through political systems and institutions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| citizen behavior | The actions and participation patterns of individuals within a political system, influenced by political culture and ideology. |
| communism | A political ideology based on the abolition of private property and near total governmental control of the economy. |
| fascism | An extreme nationalist ideology that favors authoritarian rule and prioritizes the rights of the ethnic majority over ethnic minorities and political opposition. |
| individualism | A political ideology emphasizing individual civil liberties and personal freedom over governmental restrictions. |
| neoliberalism | An economic and political ideology that emphasizes free markets, deregulation, and reduced government intervention in the economy. |
| political culture | The shared values, beliefs, and attitudes of a society that shape how citizens view government, politics, and their role in the political system. |
| political ideology | A set of values and beliefs about the goals of government, public policy, and politics that guide political action and decision-making. |
| populism | A political philosophy that supports the interests and rights of the common people over those of the elites. |
| role of the state | The function and extent of governmental power and responsibility in society, which varies across different political ideologies. |
| socialism | A political ideology focused on reducing income disparities and nationalizing major private industries. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| authoritarian regime | A system of government characterized by centralized power, limited political freedoms, and restricted citizen participation in decision-making. |
| democratic regime | A system of government in which power is held by the people through elections and representative institutions, with protections for individual rights and freedoms. |
| environmental issues | Concerns about the natural environment and sustainability that post-materialist citizens pressure governments to address. |
| political beliefs | Fundamental convictions about the nature of government, authority, and the proper relationship between the state and its citizens. |
| political corruption | The abuse of public power or position by government officials for personal gain or private benefit. |
| political ideologies | Comprehensive systems of political beliefs and values that shape how individuals and groups view government and policy solutions. |
| political values | Core beliefs and principles that citizens hold about how government should operate and what outcomes it should achieve. |
| post-materialism | A set of values emphasizing self-expression and quality of life over material accumulation, leading to demands for environmental protection and social equality. |
| rule by law | A system in which the state uses laws as a tool to reinforce its own authority, typically associated with authoritarian regimes. |
| rule of law | The principle that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable to the law. |
| social and economic equality | The belief that citizens should have equal access to resources, opportunities, and treatment regardless of social or economic status. |
| welfare state | A system in which the government provides extensive social protections and services to ensure the health and material well-being of its citizens. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| authoritarian regime | A system of government characterized by centralized power, limited political freedoms, and restricted citizen participation in decision-making. |
| authority | The legitimate power held by a government or political system to make and enforce decisions. |
| citizen participation | The involvement of citizens in the political process, including voting, activism, and engagement in civic affairs. |
| coerced participation | Political engagement forced upon citizens by the state or regime through pressure or threat. |
| democratic regime | A system of government in which power is held by the people through elections and representative institutions, with protections for individual rights and freedoms. |
| devolution of powers | The transfer of governmental authority from a central government to regional or local assemblies. |
| elections | Formal processes by which citizens cast ballots to select representatives or decide on policies, used across regime types for various purposes. |
| formal political participation | Institutionalized forms of political engagement such as voting in elections and other official channels of citizen involvement. |
| oppositional behavior | Political actions taken by citizens to challenge, change, or overthrow governmental policies or the regime itself. |
| policy making | The process by which government officials and institutions develop and implement public policies. |
| political legitimacy | The acceptance and recognition by citizens that a government has the right to exercise authority and make binding decisions. |
| power | The ability of a government or political system to influence, control, or direct the behavior of citizens and society. |
| referenda | Direct votes by citizens on specific policy questions, used to promote democratic policy-making, allow executives to bypass legislatures, or require citizens to decide on public policy issues. |
| regime | The fundamental rules that control access to and the exercise of political power, typically enduring from government to government. |
| violent political behavior | Political action involving force or violence, more likely when citizens view conventional participation options as ineffective or unavailable. |
| voluntary participation | Political engagement undertaken by citizens of their own free will without coercion. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| authoritarian regime | A system of government characterized by centralized power, limited political freedoms, and restricted citizen participation in decision-making. |
| citizen participation | The involvement of citizens in the political process, including voting, activism, and engagement in civic affairs. |
| civil rights | Fundamental freedoms and protections from government interference, such as freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly. |
| competitive elections | Elections in which multiple candidates and parties are allowed to run and have a genuine opportunity to win office. |
| democratic regime | A system of government in which power is held by the people through elections and representative institutions, with protections for individual rights and freedoms. |
| formal political participation | Institutionalized forms of political engagement such as voting in elections and other official channels of citizen involvement. |
| individual liberties | Fundamental freedoms and rights protected for individuals, such as freedom of expression and freedom of assembly. |
| informal participation | Non-institutionalized forms of political engagement such as protests and political criticism expressed through social media. |
| opposition candidates | Candidates who advocate differing views from the controlling party or elite and compete in elections. |
| public order | The state of peace and stability maintained by government, prioritized by authoritarian regimes over individual freedoms. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| authoritarian regime | A system of government characterized by centralized power, limited political freedoms, and restricted citizen participation in decision-making. |
| civil rights | Fundamental freedoms and protections from government interference, such as freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly. |
| competitive authoritarian regime | A hybrid regime that holds contested elections and maintains some democratic institutions but with limited competitiveness and minimal protections for civil liberties. |
| democratic regime | A system of government in which power is held by the people through elections and representative institutions, with protections for individual rights and freedoms. |
| government transparency | The degree to which a government allows information about its operations, policies, and decision-making processes to be publicly accessible. |
| Great Firewall | China's system of internet censorship and surveillance that restricts access to certain websites and limits political criticism on social media. |
| illiberal democracy | A system of government that holds elections and maintains democratic procedures but restricts individual freedoms and civil liberties. |
| media freedom | The ability of news organizations and journalists to report information and express opinions without government censorship or control. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| autonomous regions | Areas within a country that have self-governing powers and some degree of political independence while remaining part of the larger state. |
| autonomy | Self-governance or the right of a group or region to make decisions about its own affairs while remaining part of a larger state. |
| brute repression | The use of force and coercion by the state to suppress dissent and control populations. |
| class cleavages | Divisions within a society based on socioeconomic status or economic position. |
| ethnic cleavages | Deep social divisions within a state based on ethnic or cultural differences that can influence the structure of government. |
| ethnic minorities | Groups of people sharing a common ethnic identity that constitute a smaller portion of a country's population. |
| ethnicity | A shared cultural, linguistic, or ancestral identity that distinguishes one group of people from another. |
| informal political networks | Non-institutional relationships and connections through which political influence and power are exercised outside formal governmental structures. |
| party systems | Structures and arrangements of political parties within a country that organize citizen participation and competition for political power. |
| political legitimacy | The acceptance and recognition by citizens that a government has the right to exercise authority and make binding decisions. |
| political stability | The condition of a political system characterized by predictable governance, absence of violent conflict, and continuity of institutions. |
| radical religious elements | Extremist groups motivated by religious ideology that emerge from long-standing social and political divisions. |
| regional cleavages | Divisions within a society based on geographic location or territorial differences. |
| religious cleavages | Divisions within a society based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice. |
| religious minorities | Groups of people sharing a common religious identity that constitute a smaller portion of a country's population. |
| separatist movements | Political movements seeking to break away from an existing state and establish an independent nation or sovereign territory. |
| social cleavages | Deep divisions within society based on factors such as ethnicity, religion, class, or culture that can create distinct groups with competing interests and influence political behavior and stability. |
| terrorist religious elements | Religious extremist groups that use violence and intimidation to achieve political or ideological goals. |
| voting behavior | The patterns and choices citizens make when casting votes, influenced by factors such as social cleavages and party affiliation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| autonomy | Self-governance or the right of a group or region to make decisions about its own affairs while remaining part of a larger state. |
| civil war | Armed conflict between groups within the same state, typically involving the government and one or more opposing factions. |
| governmental legitimacy | The degree to which citizens accept and recognize the authority and right of a government to make and enforce decisions. |
| intergroup conflict | Tensions, disputes, or violence between different groups within a society, often based on ethnic, religious, or political differences. |
| multinational states | Countries that contain multiple distinct ethnic, national, or cultural groups within their borders. |
| political stability | The condition of a political system characterized by predictable governance, absence of violent conflict, and continuity of institutions. |
| secession | The formal withdrawal of a region or group from a state to form an independent political entity. |
| social cleavages | Deep divisions within society based on factors such as ethnicity, religion, class, or culture that can create distinct groups with competing interests and influence political behavior and stability. |
| terrorism | The use of violence and intimidation by non-state actors to create fear and achieve political objectives. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| competitive selection | An electoral process in which multiple candidates or parties compete for positions through contested elections. |
| direct election | An electoral process in which representatives are selected directly by voters through popular vote. |
| election rules | The specific regulations and requirements that govern how voting takes place, candidate eligibility, and the counting and allocation of votes. |
| electoral systems | The set of rules and procedures that determine how elections are conducted and representatives are selected in a political system. |
| first-past-the-post | An electoral system in which the candidate or party receiving the most votes in a district wins, regardless of whether they achieve a majority. |
| gender quotas | Requirements that a minimum percentage of legislative seats or party candidates must be women. |
| indirect election | An electoral process in which representatives are selected by other elected officials or bodies rather than by direct popular vote. |
| multimember districts | Electoral districts that elect multiple representatives to office, often used in proportional representation systems. |
| multiparty system | A political system in which multiple political parties compete for power and representation in government. |
| party list system | An electoral method in which voters vote for a party rather than individual candidates, and the party distributes seats to candidates on its ranked list. |
| plurality | An electoral system in which the candidate or party receiving the most votes wins, regardless of whether they achieve a majority. |
| proportional representation | An electoral system where political parties receive seats in the legislature proportional to the number of votes they receive, often resulting in multiple parties being represented. |
| single-member district | An electoral district that elects one representative to a legislative body. |
| threshold rules | Minimum vote requirements that political parties must meet to gain representation in a legislature. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolute majority | More than 50 percent of all votes cast in an election. |
| appointment system | A method of selecting members for legislative bodies through direct selection by officials rather than through elections. |
| ballot access | The rules and requirements that determine which candidates or parties are allowed to appear on election ballots. |
| constituency accountability | The responsibility of elected representatives to answer to and serve the interests of voters in their geographic district. |
| constituency service | The assistance and representation that elected officials provide to the voters in their geographic district. |
| electoral competition | The degree to which multiple political parties compete for votes and representation in elections. |
| electoral regulatory organizations | Government bodies responsible for establishing and enforcing rules about ballot access, voting procedures, and electoral competition. |
| geographic representation | An electoral principle ensuring that elected officials represent specific geographic areas or districts. |
| majoritarian rules | Electoral systems that require a candidate to win an absolute majority of votes to be elected, often providing winners with a strong national mandate. |
| national mandate | A strong electoral victory that gives a leader or party broad authority to implement their political agenda. |
| plurality | An electoral system in which the candidate or party receiving the most votes wins, regardless of whether they achieve a majority. |
| proportional representation | An electoral system where political parties receive seats in the legislature proportional to the number of votes they receive, often resulting in multiple parties being represented. |
| regime objectives | The political goals and outcomes that a government seeks to achieve through its institutional rules and structures. |
| runoff election | A second round of voting held when no candidate wins an absolute majority in the first round, typically between the top two candidates. |
| single-member district plurality | An electoral system where each geographic district elects one representative, and the candidate with the most votes wins, typically promoting two-party systems. |
| voter fraud | Illegal actions intended to manipulate election results, such as casting fraudulent votes or tampering with voting processes. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| catch-all political parties | Political parties that appeal to diverse groups across the political spectrum by adopting ideologically broad platforms to attract wide popular support. |
| devolution | The transfer of political power and authority from central government to regional or local governments. |
| dominant party system | A political system in which one party holds significant control over governing power while other parties are allowed to exist but have limited influence. |
| el dedazo | A practice in Mexico where the sitting president informally designated the next presidential candidate, concentrating power within the ruling party. |
| electoral competition | The degree to which multiple political parties compete for votes and representation in elections. |
| first-past-the-post | An electoral system in which the candidate or party receiving the most votes in a district wins, regardless of whether they achieve a majority. |
| formal political participation | Institutionalized forms of political engagement such as voting in elections and other official channels of citizen involvement. |
| multiparty system | A political system in which multiple political parties compete for power and representation in government. |
| one-party dominance | A system where a single political party maintains control over governing power and limits the ability of other parties to compete effectively. |
| party discipline | The practice of requiring members of a political party, particularly legislators, to vote according to party leadership decisions rather than individual preference. |
| party membership | The formal affiliation and participation of individuals within a political party. |
| party registration requirements | Legal rules that political parties must meet to be officially recognized and permitted to participate in elections. |
| patronage | The practice of distributing government jobs, resources, or favors to political supporters and allies. |
| representation | The process by which elected officials act on behalf of their constituents in government. |
| threshold rules | Minimum vote requirements that political parties must meet to gain representation in a legislature. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| citizen participation | The involvement of citizens in the political process, including voting, activism, and engagement in civic affairs. |
| ethnic quotas | Requirements that ensure representation of different ethnic groups in political offices or party structures. |
| independent candidates | Political candidates who run for office without affiliation to a political party. |
| multiparty system | A political system in which multiple political parties compete for power and representation in government. |
| one-party system | A political system in which a single political party dominates or controls the government. |
| party coalitions | Temporary or formal alliances formed between political parties to nominate candidates or govern together. |
| party structure | The organizational framework and hierarchy of a political party. |
| party systems | Structures and arrangements of political parties within a country that organize citizen participation and competition for political power. |
| plurality | An electoral system in which the candidate or party receiving the most votes wins, regardless of whether they achieve a majority. |
| policy making | The process by which government officials and institutions develop and implement public policies. |
| regional parties | Political parties that draw support and focus primarily on specific geographic regions within a country. |
| single-member district | An electoral district that elects one representative to a legislative body. |
| threshold rules | Minimum vote requirements that political parties must meet to gain representation in a legislature. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Boko Haram | A Nigerian social movement attempting to establish an Islamic state in northern Nigeria. |
| grassroots movements | Social movements that originate and build power from the local level upward to regional, national, or international levels. |
| Green Movement | An Iranian social movement that protested corruption in the 2009 election. |
| indigenous civil rights | Legal and social protections and freedoms for native or aboriginal populations within a state. |
| interest groups | Explicitly organized groups that represent and advocate for a specific interest or policy issue. |
| Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) | A Nigerian social movement advocating for the rights of ethnic minorities and protesting against unjust methods of oil extraction and distribution in the Niger Delta region. |
| Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) | A Nigerian social movement advocating for the rights of the Ogoni ethnic minority and protesting against unjust oil extraction and distribution practices. |
| organizational hierarchies | Formal structures of authority and command within an organization; limited hierarchies in social movements make them difficult for states to suppress. |
| social and political change | Transformations in society's structures, policies, and institutions affecting both social conditions and governmental systems. |
| social movements | Large groups of people organizing collectively to push for significant political or social change. |
| Zapatistas | A social movement in Chiapas, Mexico that arose in response to socioeconomic inequality and the negative impact of NAFTA. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| autonomous groups | Interest groups that operate independently from state control and are not directly linked to the government. |
| corporatism | A system of interest group representation in which the government controls access to policy making through state-sanctioned groups or peak associations representing major economic sectors. |
| interest group systems | Organized structures through which citizens and organizations seek to influence government policy and decision-making. |
| pluralism | A system of interest group representation in which multiple autonomous groups compete for influence over policy without direct state control. |
| single peak associations | State-approved organizations that serve as the sole representative for a particular economic sector such as labor, business, or agriculture in a corporatist system. |
| state-sanctioned groups | Interest groups that are officially recognized and controlled by the government to represent specific sectors in policy making. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civil society groups | Non-governmental organizations and associations that represent citizens' interests and advocate for policy changes. |
| domestic economic policies | Government regulations and decisions that affect economic activity within a nation's borders. |
| economic globalization | The process of increasing economic interconnection among nations through growing networks of trade, investment, and financial flows that transcend political borders. |
| economic liberalization | Policies that reduce government control over the economy and promote free market principles, including reduced tariffs and deregulation. |
| economic networks | Systems of interconnected economic relationships and transactions that link producers, consumers, and markets across multiple countries. |
| International Monetary Fund | A global organization that provides financial assistance and promotes economic policies among member states. |
| multinational corporations | Large companies that operate in multiple countries and often have significant influence over resource extraction and economic policies. |
| nationalist groups | Political movements that prioritize national interests and often oppose globalization and foreign influence. |
| neoliberalism | An economic and political ideology that emphasizes free markets, deregulation, and reduced government intervention in the economy. |
| populist groups | Political movements that claim to represent the interests of ordinary people against elites and established institutions. |
| state control | Government regulation and management of economic activities within a nation's borders. |
| World Bank | An international financial institution that provides loans and development assistance to countries. |
| World Trade Organization | An international organization that regulates trade between nations and promotes trade liberalization. |
| worldwide market | An integrated global system of commerce where goods, services, and capital move across national boundaries with minimal restrictions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| domestic demands | Requests, needs, or pressures from a country's own population or interest groups. |
| domestic economic conditions | The state of a country's internal economy, including factors such as employment, growth, and stability. |
| global market forces | The economic pressures and dynamics created by international trade, investment, and competition that influence national economies. |
| joint ventures | Business partnerships between two or more companies or entities, often involving shared ownership and responsibility for a specific project or operation. |
| national influence | A country's ability to affect or shape political, economic, or cultural outcomes in other nations or regions. |
| nationalization | The process of transferring ownership and control of private industries or assets to the state. |
| natural resources | Materials or substances found in nature that have economic value and can be extracted or harvested for use, such as oil, gas, minerals, and other commodities. |
| private ownership | Economic control of industry and capital by individuals or private companies rather than the state. |
| privatization | The process of transferring ownership and control of state-owned industries or assets to private individuals or companies. |
| special economic zones | Designated geographic areas where governments allow special economic policies, such as reduced regulations or tax incentives, to attract foreign investment and promote economic development. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cultural influences | The spread of ideas, values, customs, and practices from one culture to another, often accompanying trade and investment. |
| domestic backlash | A negative reaction or resistance from a country's own citizens in response to external influences or policies. |
| domestic reform | Changes made to a country's internal policies, institutions, or systems to address citizen demands or improve governance. |
| economic development | The process of improving living standards, increasing productivity, and building sustainable economic growth in a country or region. |
| economic sanctions | Penalties imposed by one or more countries on another country, typically involving trade restrictions or financial measures, to influence its behavior. |
| environmental degradation | The deterioration of the natural environment through pollution, resource depletion, and ecosystem damage. |
| foreign direct investment | Investment by foreign individuals or companies in productive assets within a country, such as factories, businesses, or infrastructure. |
| global market forces | The economic pressures and dynamics created by international trade, investment, and competition that influence national economies. |
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and interdependence among countries through trade, investment, cultural exchange, and political interaction. |
| human rights violations | Actions by governments or others that deny individuals their fundamental rights and freedoms recognized by international law. |
| international organizations | Formal institutions established by multiple countries to address global issues and coordinate policy, such as the IMF and World Bank. |
| multinational corporations | Large companies that operate in multiple countries and often have significant influence over resource extraction and economic policies. |
| regime sovereignty | A government's authority and right to exercise independent control over its territory, policies, and decision-making without external interference. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| economic development | The process of improving living standards, increasing productivity, and building sustainable economic growth in a country or region. |
| economic freedom | The ability of individuals and businesses to engage in economic activities with minimal government restriction. |
| economic growth | An increase in a country's total economic output and productive capacity over time. |
| economic liberalization | Policies that reduce government control over the economy and promote free market principles, including reduced tariffs and deregulation. |
| environmental pollution | The introduction of harmful substances or contaminants into the natural environment. |
| foreign direct investment | Investment by foreign individuals or companies in productive assets within a country, such as factories, businesses, or infrastructure. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including petroleum, natural gas, and coal. |
| free market mechanisms | Economic systems that rely on supply and demand, competition, and private enterprise rather than government control to allocate resources. |
| government regulation | Rules and policies established by government to control economic and social activities. |
| human development | A measure of well-being in a country, typically including factors like health, education, and standard of living. |
| inequality | Unequal distribution of wealth, income, or resources among members of a society. |
| inflation | A sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over time. |
| national income | The total value of goods and services produced by a country's economy. |
| neoliberal economic policies | Economic policies emphasizing the removal of government restrictions and barriers to allow market forces and private actors greater freedom. |
| political corruption | The abuse of public power or position by government officials for personal gain or private benefit. |
| political liberalization | Policies aimed at increasing political freedoms, democratic participation, and reducing state control over political institutions and civil society. |
| privatization | The process of transferring ownership and control of state-owned industries or assets to private individuals or companies. |
| productivity | The effectiveness of effort measured by the rate of output per unit of input in economic production. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources extracted or harvested for use in production, such as petroleum, natural gas, and rare-earth metals. |
| regional migration patterns | Movements of populations within a country between different geographic regions in response to economic or social factors. |
| social tensions | Conflicts or strains between different groups in society due to competing interests or inequalities. |
| subsidies | Government financial support or assistance provided to businesses or industries to reduce their costs or encourage production. |
| tariffs | Taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries or generate government revenue. |
| trade imbalance | Disparities between the value of a country's exports and imports, often resulting in deficits or surpluses in international trade. |
| unemployment | The state of being without a job; the percentage of the labor force that is jobless. |
| uneven economic development | Unequal distribution of economic growth and prosperity across different regions or areas within a country. |
| urban sprawl | The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural or undeveloped land. |
| wealth inequality | The unequal distribution of income and assets among members of a society, resulting in disparities between rich and poor. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| domestic policymakers | Government officials and leaders within a country who develop and implement national policies. |
| import substitution industrialization | An economic policy aimed at reducing foreign dependency by raising tariffs and encouraging domestic production of manufactured goods. |
| international organizations | Formal institutions established by multiple countries to address global issues and coordinate policy, such as the IMF and World Bank. |
| member states | Countries that have joined and participate in an international or supranational organization. |
| national sovereignty | A country's right to self-governance and independent decision-making without external interference. |
| privatization | The process of transferring ownership and control of state-owned industries or assets to private individuals or companies. |
| structural adjustment programs | Conditions imposed by the IMF on countries receiving financial assistance, typically requiring privatization, reduced tariffs, and decreased government subsidies. |
| subsidies | Government financial support or assistance provided to businesses or industries to reduce their costs or encourage production. |
| supranational organizations | Organizations with sovereign authority over member states that can enforce decisions and policies affecting national governments. |
| tariffs | Taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries or generate government revenue. |
| trade liberalization | The reduction of trade barriers such as tariffs and quotas to increase the flow of goods and services between countries. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| education policies | Government regulations and programs that establish standards, access, and requirements for schooling and learning opportunities. |
| gender equity | Policies and practices aimed at ensuring equal rights, opportunities, and treatment for people of all genders. |
| gender quotas | Requirements that a minimum percentage of legislative seats or party candidates must be women. |
| health care policies | Government programs and regulations that govern the provision and access to medical services and health-related services for citizens. |
| political legitimacy | The acceptance and recognition by citizens that a government has the right to exercise authority and make binding decisions. |
| social policies | Government programs and regulations designed to address social issues and improve citizens' welfare, including areas such as gender equity, health care, and education. |
| social welfare policies | Government programs designed to provide financial assistance, services, and support to reduce poverty and improve citizens' living conditions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| austerity measures | Government policies that reduce spending and increase taxes to address budget deficits and reduce government debt. |
| budget deficits | A situation in which a government's expenditures exceed its revenues, resulting in a shortfall that must be financed. |
| direct foreign investment | Capital invested by foreign companies or individuals in businesses and assets within another country. |
| economic development | The process of improving living standards, increasing productivity, and building sustainable economic growth in a country or region. |
| environmental regulation | Government rules and standards designed to protect the environment and limit pollution from industrial and other activities. |
| foreign exchange rates | The value at which one country's currency can be exchanged for another country's currency. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including petroleum, natural gas, and coal. |
| governmental policies | Official courses of action or principles adopted by a government to address specific issues or guide decision-making. |
| green technologies | Environmentally friendly technologies and practices designed to reduce pollution and resource consumption. |
| industrialization | The process of rapid development of industries in a country or region, involving increased manufacturing and economic production. |
| tariffs | Taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries or generate government revenue. |
| trade liberalization | The reduction of trade barriers such as tariffs and quotas to increase the flow of goods and services between countries. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aging population | A demographic shift characterized by an increasing proportion of elderly citizens relative to younger populations. |
| birth rate policies | Government policies designed to encourage or discourage the number of children born in a population. |
| brain drain | The emigration of highly skilled or well-educated individuals from their home countries to seek better opportunities elsewhere. |
| demographic changes | Shifts in the composition and distribution of human populations, including changes in size, age structure, and geographic location. |
| discrimination against religious minorities | Unfair treatment or prejudice directed at people based on their religious beliefs or practices. |
| economic liberalization | Policies that reduce government control over the economy and promote free market principles, including reduced tariffs and deregulation. |
| external migration | Movement of people across national borders, including immigration and emigration. |
| foreign direct investment | Investment by foreign individuals or companies in productive assets within a country, such as factories, businesses, or infrastructure. |
| infrastructure | Basic physical systems and facilities needed to support a population, including transportation, utilities, and public services. |
| internal migration | Movement of people within a country's borders, such as from rural to urban areas. |
| maquiladora zones | Manufacturing regions, particularly in Mexico, where foreign companies operate assembly plants with special trade and tax privileges. |
| net migration rates | The difference between the number of people immigrating into and emigrating from a country or region. |
| population density | The number of people living in a given area, typically measured per square unit of land. |
| regional disparities | Significant differences in economic development, wealth, and opportunity between different geographic regions within a country. |
| rural to urban migration | The movement of populations from countryside and agricultural areas to cities and urban centers. |
| special economic zones | Designated geographic areas where governments allow special economic policies, such as reduced regulations or tax incentives, to attract foreign investment and promote economic development. |
| universal health care system | A government-funded health care system that provides medical services to all citizens regardless of income. |
| working-age population | The portion of a population capable of and available for work, typically defined as individuals between 15 and 64 years old. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| currency overvaluation | A situation where a country's currency is priced higher than its actual economic value, often resulting from resource wealth and causing trade imbalances. |
| economic development | The process of improving living standards, increasing productivity, and building sustainable economic growth in a country or region. |
| economic diversification | The development of multiple industries and economic sectors within a country to reduce dependence on a single export or industry. |
| governmental accountability | The responsibility of government officials to answer to citizens and be held responsible for their actions and decisions. |
| multinational corporations | Large companies that operate in multiple countries and often have significant influence over resource extraction and economic policies. |
| nationalized resources | Natural resources that are brought under government ownership and control rather than remaining in private hands. |
| natural resources | Materials or substances found in nature that have economic value and can be extracted or harvested for use, such as oil, gas, minerals, and other commodities. |
| political corruption | The abuse of public power or position by government officials for personal gain or private benefit. |
| political development | The process of change in a country's political institutions, systems, and governance structures over time. |
| political legitimacy | The acceptance and recognition by citizens that a government has the right to exercise authority and make binding decisions. |
| privatized ownership | The transfer of natural resources or industries from government control to private individuals or companies. |
| rentier state | A state that obtains a sizable percentage of government revenue from the export of natural resources, particularly oil and gas, or from leasing these resources to foreign countries. |
| resource curse | A paradoxical situation where countries with abundant natural resources, particularly petroleum, experience poor economic and political outcomes including lack of diversification and increased corruption. |
| revenue fluctuations | Significant and unpredictable changes in government income based on variations in world market prices for exported commodities. |
| sovereignty | The right and power of a state to govern itself without outside interference and to exercise independent legal authority over a population in a particular territory. |
| trade imbalance | Disparities between the value of a country's exports and imports, often resulting in deficits or surpluses in international trade. |
| wealth inequality | The unequal distribution of income and assets among members of a society, resulting in disparities between rich and poor. |
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