| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| civil society groups | Non-governmental organizations and associations that represent citizens' interests and advocate for policy changes. |
| domestic economic policies | Government regulations and decisions that affect economic activity within a nation's borders. |
| economic globalization | The process of increasing economic interconnection among nations through growing networks of trade, investment, and financial flows that transcend political borders. |
| economic liberalization | Policies that reduce government control over the economy and promote free market principles, including reduced tariffs and deregulation. |
| economic networks | Systems of interconnected economic relationships and transactions that link producers, consumers, and markets across multiple countries. |
| International Monetary Fund | A global organization that provides financial assistance and promotes economic policies among member states. |
| multinational corporations | Large companies that operate in multiple countries and often have significant influence over resource extraction and economic policies. |
| nationalist groups | Political movements that prioritize national interests and often oppose globalization and foreign influence. |
| neoliberalism | An economic and political ideology that emphasizes free markets, deregulation, and reduced government intervention in the economy. |
| populist groups | Political movements that claim to represent the interests of ordinary people against elites and established institutions. |
| state control | Government regulation and management of economic activities within a nation's borders. |
| World Bank | An international financial institution that provides loans and development assistance to countries. |
| World Trade Organization | An international organization that regulates trade between nations and promotes trade liberalization. |
| worldwide market | An integrated global system of commerce where goods, services, and capital move across national boundaries with minimal restrictions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| domestic demands | Requests, needs, or pressures from a country's own population or interest groups. |
| domestic economic conditions | The state of a country's internal economy, including factors such as employment, growth, and stability. |
| global market forces | The economic pressures and dynamics created by international trade, investment, and competition that influence national economies. |
| joint ventures | Business partnerships between two or more companies or entities, often involving shared ownership and responsibility for a specific project or operation. |
| national influence | A country's ability to affect or shape political, economic, or cultural outcomes in other nations or regions. |
| nationalization | The process of transferring ownership and control of private industries or assets to the state. |
| natural resources | Materials or substances found in nature that have economic value and can be extracted or harvested for use, such as oil, gas, minerals, and other commodities. |
| private ownership | Economic control of industry and capital by individuals or private companies rather than the state. |
| privatization | The process of transferring ownership and control of state-owned industries or assets to private individuals or companies. |
| special economic zones | Designated geographic areas where governments allow special economic policies, such as reduced regulations or tax incentives, to attract foreign investment and promote economic development. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cultural influences | The spread of ideas, values, customs, and practices from one culture to another, often accompanying trade and investment. |
| domestic backlash | A negative reaction or resistance from a country's own citizens in response to external influences or policies. |
| domestic reform | Changes made to a country's internal policies, institutions, or systems to address citizen demands or improve governance. |
| economic development | The process of improving living standards, increasing productivity, and building sustainable economic growth in a country or region. |
| economic sanctions | Penalties imposed by one or more countries on another country, typically involving trade restrictions or financial measures, to influence its behavior. |
| environmental degradation | The deterioration of the natural environment through pollution, resource depletion, and ecosystem damage. |
| foreign direct investment | Investment by foreign individuals or companies in productive assets within a country, such as factories, businesses, or infrastructure. |
| global market forces | The economic pressures and dynamics created by international trade, investment, and competition that influence national economies. |
| globalization | The process of increasing interconnection and interdependence among countries through trade, investment, cultural exchange, and political interaction. |
| human rights violations | Actions by governments or others that deny individuals their fundamental rights and freedoms recognized by international law. |
| international organizations | Formal institutions established by multiple countries to address global issues and coordinate policy, such as the IMF and World Bank. |
| multinational corporations | Large companies that operate in multiple countries and often have significant influence over resource extraction and economic policies. |
| regime sovereignty | A government's authority and right to exercise independent control over its territory, policies, and decision-making without external interference. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| economic development | The process of improving living standards, increasing productivity, and building sustainable economic growth in a country or region. |
| economic freedom | The ability of individuals and businesses to engage in economic activities with minimal government restriction. |
| economic growth | An increase in a country's total economic output and productive capacity over time. |
| economic liberalization | Policies that reduce government control over the economy and promote free market principles, including reduced tariffs and deregulation. |
| environmental pollution | The introduction of harmful substances or contaminants into the natural environment. |
| foreign direct investment | Investment by foreign individuals or companies in productive assets within a country, such as factories, businesses, or infrastructure. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including petroleum, natural gas, and coal. |
| free market mechanisms | Economic systems that rely on supply and demand, competition, and private enterprise rather than government control to allocate resources. |
| government regulation | Rules and policies established by government to control economic and social activities. |
| human development | A measure of well-being in a country, typically including factors like health, education, and standard of living. |
| inequality | Unequal distribution of wealth, income, or resources among members of a society. |
| inflation | A sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over time. |
| national income | The total value of goods and services produced by a country's economy. |
| neoliberal economic policies | Economic policies emphasizing the removal of government restrictions and barriers to allow market forces and private actors greater freedom. |
| political corruption | The abuse of public power or position by government officials for personal gain or private benefit. |
| political liberalization | Policies aimed at increasing political freedoms, democratic participation, and reducing state control over political institutions and civil society. |
| privatization | The process of transferring ownership and control of state-owned industries or assets to private individuals or companies. |
| productivity | The effectiveness of effort measured by the rate of output per unit of input in economic production. |
| raw materials | Unprocessed natural resources extracted or harvested for use in production, such as petroleum, natural gas, and rare-earth metals. |
| regional migration patterns | Movements of populations within a country between different geographic regions in response to economic or social factors. |
| social tensions | Conflicts or strains between different groups in society due to competing interests or inequalities. |
| subsidies | Government financial support or assistance provided to businesses or industries to reduce their costs or encourage production. |
| tariffs | Taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries or generate government revenue. |
| trade imbalance | Disparities between the value of a country's exports and imports, often resulting in deficits or surpluses in international trade. |
| unemployment | The state of being without a job; the percentage of the labor force that is jobless. |
| uneven economic development | Unequal distribution of economic growth and prosperity across different regions or areas within a country. |
| urban sprawl | The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural or undeveloped land. |
| wealth inequality | The unequal distribution of income and assets among members of a society, resulting in disparities between rich and poor. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| domestic policymakers | Government officials and leaders within a country who develop and implement national policies. |
| import substitution industrialization | An economic policy aimed at reducing foreign dependency by raising tariffs and encouraging domestic production of manufactured goods. |
| international organizations | Formal institutions established by multiple countries to address global issues and coordinate policy, such as the IMF and World Bank. |
| member states | Countries that have joined and participate in an international or supranational organization. |
| national sovereignty | A country's right to self-governance and independent decision-making without external interference. |
| privatization | The process of transferring ownership and control of state-owned industries or assets to private individuals or companies. |
| structural adjustment programs | Conditions imposed by the IMF on countries receiving financial assistance, typically requiring privatization, reduced tariffs, and decreased government subsidies. |
| subsidies | Government financial support or assistance provided to businesses or industries to reduce their costs or encourage production. |
| supranational organizations | Organizations with sovereign authority over member states that can enforce decisions and policies affecting national governments. |
| tariffs | Taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries or generate government revenue. |
| trade liberalization | The reduction of trade barriers such as tariffs and quotas to increase the flow of goods and services between countries. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| education policies | Government regulations and programs that establish standards, access, and requirements for schooling and learning opportunities. |
| gender equity | Policies and practices aimed at ensuring equal rights, opportunities, and treatment for people of all genders. |
| gender quotas | Requirements that a minimum percentage of legislative seats or party candidates must be women. |
| health care policies | Government programs and regulations that govern the provision and access to medical services and health-related services for citizens. |
| political legitimacy | The acceptance and recognition by citizens that a government has the right to exercise authority and make binding decisions. |
| social policies | Government programs and regulations designed to address social issues and improve citizens' welfare, including areas such as gender equity, health care, and education. |
| social welfare policies | Government programs designed to provide financial assistance, services, and support to reduce poverty and improve citizens' living conditions. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| austerity measures | Government policies that reduce spending and increase taxes to address budget deficits and reduce government debt. |
| budget deficits | A situation in which a government's expenditures exceed its revenues, resulting in a shortfall that must be financed. |
| direct foreign investment | Capital invested by foreign companies or individuals in businesses and assets within another country. |
| economic development | The process of improving living standards, increasing productivity, and building sustainable economic growth in a country or region. |
| environmental regulation | Government rules and standards designed to protect the environment and limit pollution from industrial and other activities. |
| foreign exchange rates | The value at which one country's currency can be exchanged for another country's currency. |
| fossil fuels | Non-renewable energy sources formed from ancient organic matter, including petroleum, natural gas, and coal. |
| governmental policies | Official courses of action or principles adopted by a government to address specific issues or guide decision-making. |
| green technologies | Environmentally friendly technologies and practices designed to reduce pollution and resource consumption. |
| industrialization | The process of rapid development of industries in a country or region, involving increased manufacturing and economic production. |
| tariffs | Taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries or generate government revenue. |
| trade liberalization | The reduction of trade barriers such as tariffs and quotas to increase the flow of goods and services between countries. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| aging population | A demographic shift characterized by an increasing proportion of elderly citizens relative to younger populations. |
| birth rate policies | Government policies designed to encourage or discourage the number of children born in a population. |
| brain drain | The emigration of highly skilled or well-educated individuals from their home countries to seek better opportunities elsewhere. |
| demographic changes | Shifts in the composition and distribution of human populations, including changes in size, age structure, and geographic location. |
| discrimination against religious minorities | Unfair treatment or prejudice directed at people based on their religious beliefs or practices. |
| economic liberalization | Policies that reduce government control over the economy and promote free market principles, including reduced tariffs and deregulation. |
| external migration | Movement of people across national borders, including immigration and emigration. |
| foreign direct investment | Investment by foreign individuals or companies in productive assets within a country, such as factories, businesses, or infrastructure. |
| infrastructure | Basic physical systems and facilities needed to support a population, including transportation, utilities, and public services. |
| internal migration | Movement of people within a country's borders, such as from rural to urban areas. |
| maquiladora zones | Manufacturing regions, particularly in Mexico, where foreign companies operate assembly plants with special trade and tax privileges. |
| net migration rates | The difference between the number of people immigrating into and emigrating from a country or region. |
| population density | The number of people living in a given area, typically measured per square unit of land. |
| regional disparities | Significant differences in economic development, wealth, and opportunity between different geographic regions within a country. |
| rural to urban migration | The movement of populations from countryside and agricultural areas to cities and urban centers. |
| special economic zones | Designated geographic areas where governments allow special economic policies, such as reduced regulations or tax incentives, to attract foreign investment and promote economic development. |
| universal health care system | A government-funded health care system that provides medical services to all citizens regardless of income. |
| working-age population | The portion of a population capable of and available for work, typically defined as individuals between 15 and 64 years old. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| currency overvaluation | A situation where a country's currency is priced higher than its actual economic value, often resulting from resource wealth and causing trade imbalances. |
| economic development | The process of improving living standards, increasing productivity, and building sustainable economic growth in a country or region. |
| economic diversification | The development of multiple industries and economic sectors within a country to reduce dependence on a single export or industry. |
| governmental accountability | The responsibility of government officials to answer to citizens and be held responsible for their actions and decisions. |
| multinational corporations | Large companies that operate in multiple countries and often have significant influence over resource extraction and economic policies. |
| nationalized resources | Natural resources that are brought under government ownership and control rather than remaining in private hands. |
| natural resources | Materials or substances found in nature that have economic value and can be extracted or harvested for use, such as oil, gas, minerals, and other commodities. |
| political corruption | The abuse of public power or position by government officials for personal gain or private benefit. |
| political development | The process of change in a country's political institutions, systems, and governance structures over time. |
| political legitimacy | The acceptance and recognition by citizens that a government has the right to exercise authority and make binding decisions. |
| privatized ownership | The transfer of natural resources or industries from government control to private individuals or companies. |
| rentier state | A state that obtains a sizable percentage of government revenue from the export of natural resources, particularly oil and gas, or from leasing these resources to foreign countries. |
| resource curse | A paradoxical situation where countries with abundant natural resources, particularly petroleum, experience poor economic and political outcomes including lack of diversification and increased corruption. |
| revenue fluctuations | Significant and unpredictable changes in government income based on variations in world market prices for exported commodities. |
| sovereignty | The right and power of a state to govern itself without outside interference and to exercise independent legal authority over a population in a particular territory. |
| trade imbalance | Disparities between the value of a country's exports and imports, often resulting in deficits or surpluses in international trade. |
| wealth inequality | The unequal distribution of income and assets among members of a society, resulting in disparities between rich and poor. |