ap comparative government unit 5 study guides

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Political development involves the evolution and strengthening of political institutions, processes, and norms within a society
• Economic development refers to the growth and improvement of a country's economy, including increases in GDP, per capita income, and standard of living
• Modernization theory suggests that societies progress through stages of development, from traditional to modern, as they adopt new technologies and values
• Dependency theory argues that the global economic system perpetuates the underdevelopment of poorer nations by exploiting their resources and labor
  • Suggests that wealthy nations maintain their dominance by keeping developing countries dependent on them for trade, aid, and investment
• Globalization is the increasing interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and societies around the world, driven by advances in communication and transportation technologies
• Democratization is the process of transitioning from an authoritarian or totalitarian regime to a more democratic system of government
• Economic liberalization involves the reduction of government control over the economy and the promotion of free-market policies, such as privatization and deregulation

Historical Context

• The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries led to significant economic and political changes, as countries shifted from agrarian to industrial economies
• The end of World War II marked a turning point in global political and economic development, with the emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as superpowers
  • This period also saw the rise of decolonization movements and the formation of new nation-states in Africa and Asia
• The Cold War era (1947-1991) was characterized by ideological and geopolitical tensions between the capitalist West and the communist East
  • Many developing countries aligned themselves with either the US or the USSR, shaping their political and economic trajectories
• The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 led to a wave of democratization and economic liberalization in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet republics
• The 1980s and 1990s saw the rise of neoliberal economic policies, promoted by institutions like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
  • These policies emphasized free trade, privatization, and deregulation as key drivers of economic growth
• The 21st century has been marked by the increasing influence of emerging economies, such as China and India, and the challenges posed by globalization, climate change, and rising inequality

Theories of Political and Economic Development

• Modernization theory, developed by scholars like Walt Rostow, argues that societies progress through five stages of economic growth: traditional society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and high mass consumption
  • This theory suggests that economic development leads to political and social modernization, including the emergence of democratic institutions and values
• Dependency theory, advanced by thinkers like Raúl Prebisch and André Gunder Frank, critiques the modernization approach and argues that the global economic system perpetuates the underdevelopment of poorer nations
  • This theory emphasizes the need for developing countries to reduce their reliance on foreign capital and technology and to pursue self-reliant development strategies
• The developmental state model, exemplified by countries like South Korea and Taiwan, involves a strong, interventionist state that actively promotes economic growth and industrialization
  • In this model, the state works closely with the private sector to guide investment, protect infant industries, and foster technological innovation
• The Washington Consensus, a set of neoliberal economic policies promoted by the IMF and World Bank in the 1980s and 1990s, emphasizes fiscal discipline, trade liberalization, privatization, and deregulation as key drivers of economic growth
  • Critics argue that these policies have exacerbated inequality and undermined social welfare in many developing countries
• The human development approach, championed by economists like Amartya Sen, emphasizes the importance of expanding people's capabilities and freedoms, rather than just focusing on economic growth
  • This approach prioritizes investments in education, health care, and social protection as essential for sustainable development

Types of Political Systems and Economic Models

• Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people, who exercise their authority through elected representatives
  • Liberal democracies are characterized by free and fair elections, the protection of civil liberties, and the rule of law
  • Social democracies combine democratic governance with a strong welfare state and policies aimed at reducing inequality
• Authoritarianism refers to political systems in which power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader or a small group, with limited political freedoms and civil liberties
  • Examples include military dictatorships, one-party states, and personalist regimes
• Totalitarianism is an extreme form of authoritarianism, in which the state seeks to control all aspects of society and individual life
  • Examples include Nazi Germany under Hitler and the Soviet Union under Stalin
• Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production, free-market competition, and the pursuit of profit
  • Market economies rely on the forces of supply and demand to allocate resources and determine prices
  • Mixed economies combine elements of capitalism and socialism, with both private and public ownership of resources
• Socialism is an economic system based on public ownership of the means of production and the distribution of goods and services according to need
  • Centrally planned economies, such as those in the former Soviet Union and China under Mao, involve state control over production and distribution
• Communism is a political and economic ideology that seeks to establish a classless society in which all property and wealth are communally owned
  • In practice, communist regimes have often been characterized by one-party rule, state control of the economy, and the suppression of political dissent

Factors Influencing Change

• Economic factors, such as growth rates, income levels, and patterns of trade and investment, can shape political and social development
  • Economic crises, such as the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s or the Asian financial crisis of the 1990s, can trigger political instability and reform
• Social factors, including demographic trends, education levels, and patterns of inequality, can influence the pace and direction of political and economic change
  • The rise of a middle class, for example, is often associated with demands for greater political participation and economic opportunity
• Cultural factors, such as religion, ethnicity, and national identity, can shape political and economic institutions and norms
  • The role of Confucianism in East Asian development, or the impact of Islam on politics in the Middle East, illustrate the importance of cultural factors
• Technological factors, such as the spread of the internet and mobile phones, can facilitate political mobilization and economic innovation
  • The role of social media in the Arab Spring uprisings of 2011, or the impact of mobile banking on financial inclusion in Africa, highlight the transformative potential of technology
• International factors, including global trade patterns, foreign aid, and the influence of international organizations, can shape the political and economic trajectories of developing countries
  • The role of the IMF and World Bank in promoting structural adjustment policies, or the impact of Chinese investment in Africa, illustrate the importance of international factors
• Historical legacies, such as colonialism, can have long-lasting effects on political and economic development
  • The artificial borders and weak institutions inherited from colonial rule have contributed to political instability and economic underdevelopment in many African countries

Case Studies and Examples

• South Korea's rapid economic development in the 1960s and 1970s, driven by a strong developmental state and export-oriented industrialization, illustrates the potential of state-led growth strategies
  • However, South Korea's authoritarian political system during this period also highlights the tensions between economic development and democratic governance
• China's economic reforms since 1978, including the introduction of market mechanisms and the opening up to foreign investment, have led to rapid growth and poverty reduction
  • At the same time, China's one-party political system and state control over key sectors of the economy raise questions about the sustainability and equity of its development model
• India's experience with economic liberalization since the 1990s, including the reduction of trade barriers and the privatization of state-owned enterprises, has led to increased foreign investment and growth
  • However, India's development has also been marked by persistent poverty, inequality, and social exclusion, particularly along lines of caste and gender
• Brazil's success in reducing poverty and inequality through social welfare programs like Bolsa Família, which provides cash transfers to low-income families, demonstrates the potential of targeted social policies
  • However, Brazil's recent economic and political crises, including the impeachment of President Dilma Rousseff in 2016, highlight the challenges of sustaining inclusive development
• The experiences of post-communist countries in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, such as Poland and Russia, illustrate the complex challenges of transitioning from centrally planned to market economies
  • While some countries have successfully integrated into the global economy and consolidated democratic institutions, others have struggled with corruption, inequality, and the legacy of authoritarian rule

Global Trends and Challenges

• The rise of emerging economies, particularly China and India, is shifting the balance of global economic power and creating new opportunities and challenges for developing countries
  • The growing influence of the BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) in global trade and investment flows reflects this trend
• The increasing pace and scale of globalization, driven by advances in communication and transportation technologies, is creating new opportunities for economic integration and cultural exchange
  • However, globalization has also contributed to the spread of financial crises, the displacement of local industries, and the erosion of national sovereignty
• The challenge of climate change, including rising temperatures, sea levels, and extreme weather events, poses significant risks to developing countries, particularly those dependent on agriculture and natural resources
  • The unequal distribution of the costs and benefits of climate change, with poorer countries often bearing the brunt of the impacts, raises questions of global justice and equity
• The persistence of poverty, inequality, and social exclusion, despite overall gains in global economic growth and living standards, remains a major challenge for political and economic development
  • The Sustainable Development Goals, adopted by the United Nations in 2015, set ambitious targets for reducing poverty, promoting inclusive growth, and protecting the environment
• The rise of populist and nationalist movements, often in response to the perceived failures of globalization and democratic institutions, is reshaping the political landscape in many countries
  • The election of leaders like Donald Trump in the United States, Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil, and Narendra Modi in India reflects this trend, with important implications for global cooperation and development

Impact on Society and Policy Implications

• Political and economic development can have far-reaching impacts on social structures, cultural norms, and individual well-being
  • The empowerment of women, for example, through increased access to education and employment opportunities, can challenge traditional gender roles and contribute to broader social change
• The distribution of the benefits and costs of development, both within and between countries, raises important questions of social justice and equity
  • The concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a small elite, while large segments of the population remain in poverty, can fuel social and political instability
• The environmental impacts of economic growth, including pollution, deforestation, and the depletion of natural resources, pose significant challenges for sustainable development
  • The need to balance economic growth with environmental protection and the rights of indigenous communities is a key policy challenge in many developing countries
• The role of the state in promoting political and economic development remains a central question, with debates over the appropriate balance between market forces and government intervention
  • The success of the developmental state model in East Asia, for example, has led to calls for a more active role for the state in other regions, while the failures of state-led development in some countries have led to a greater emphasis on market-oriented reforms
• The importance of strong institutions, including the rule of law, property rights, and effective governance, is widely recognized as a key factor in sustainable development
  • However, building and reforming institutions is a complex and long-term process, requiring sustained political will and social consensus
• The need for global cooperation and solidarity in addressing common challenges, such as climate change, poverty, and inequality, is becoming increasingly urgent
  • The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the interdependence of countries and the importance of global public goods, such as health systems and scientific research, in promoting resilience and sustainable development