ap comparative government unit 3 study guides

Key Concepts

• Political culture encompasses the shared values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape political behavior within a society
• Civic culture is a type of political culture characterized by high levels of political participation, trust in government institutions, and a belief in the legitimacy of the political system
• Political socialization is the process by which individuals acquire their political beliefs, values, and behaviors through interactions with family, education, media, and other social institutions
• Political efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to influence political outcomes and the responsiveness of the political system to their demands
• Political participation includes various activities citizens engage in to influence political decisions, such as voting, campaigning, contacting representatives, and protesting
• Voter turnout is a key indicator of political participation and is influenced by factors such as education, income, age, and the competitiveness of elections
• Political apathy describes a lack of interest or engagement in political affairs, often resulting from disillusionment, cynicism, or a sense of powerlessness
• Political mobilization involves efforts by political parties, interest groups, and social movements to encourage citizens to participate in political activities and support their causes

Historical Context

• The concept of political culture gained prominence in the 1960s with the work of Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, who studied the relationship between political attitudes and democratic stability in five countries
• Alexis de Tocqueville's "Democracy in America" (1835) provided early insights into the political culture of the United States, emphasizing the importance of civic associations and local self-government
• The rise of mass media in the 20th century has significantly influenced political socialization and participation by shaping public opinion and political discourse
• Historical events such as wars, economic crises, and social movements have often served as catalysts for changes in political culture and participation
• The expansion of suffrage to previously excluded groups (women, racial minorities) has gradually transformed the political landscape and increased the diversity of political participation
• The end of the Cold War and the spread of democracy in the late 20th century led to a renewed interest in the role of political culture in democratic transitions and consolidation
• Technological advancements, particularly the internet and social media, have created new forms of political engagement and mobilization in the 21st century
• The global rise of populist and nationalist movements in recent years has challenged established political norms and institutions, reflecting shifts in political culture and participation

Forms of Political Culture

• Parochial political culture is characterized by a lack of awareness or interest in politics beyond the local level, with little expectation of government services or participation in the political process
• Subject political culture involves a high awareness of politics and government, but limited participation beyond voting, as citizens view themselves as subjects of government authority rather than active participants
• Participant political culture is marked by high levels of political awareness, interest, and participation, with citizens actively engaging in various forms of political activity to influence government decisions
• Almond and Verba's "The Civic Culture" (1963) identified the ideal type of political culture for a stable democracy as a mix of subject and participant orientations, balancing respect for authority with active citizen involvement
• Consensual political culture is characterized by broad agreement on fundamental political values and institutions, facilitating compromise and stability (United States, United Kingdom)
• Conflictual political culture involves deep divisions and polarization along ideological, ethnic, or religious lines, often leading to political instability and gridlock (Lebanon, Iraq)
• Authoritarian political culture emphasizes obedience to authority, limited political pluralism, and restricted civil liberties, with participation often controlled or mobilized by the state (China, Russia)
• Postmaterialist political culture, as described by Ronald Inglehart, prioritizes self-expression, quality of life, and environmental protection over economic and physical security, leading to new forms of political participation and issue advocacy (Western Europe)

Factors Influencing Political Participation

• Education is a strong predictor of political participation, as higher levels of education provide individuals with the knowledge, skills, and resources to engage in political activities
• Income and socioeconomic status affect political participation, with wealthier individuals more likely to vote, contribute to campaigns, and have access to political networks
• Age influences political participation, with older citizens generally more likely to vote and engage in conventional forms of participation, while younger citizens may be more involved in social movements and online activism
• Gender has historically been a factor in political participation, with women often underrepresented in political office and facing barriers to equal political influence, although this gap has narrowed in many countries
• Ethnicity and race can shape political participation, as minority groups may face discrimination, language barriers, or socioeconomic disadvantages that limit their political engagement
• Religion can influence political participation by shaping moral values, social networks, and political preferences, with religious institutions sometimes serving as mobilizing forces for political action
• Political interest and knowledge are key drivers of participation, as individuals who follow politics closely and understand the issues are more likely to engage in various forms of political activity
• Social capital, or the networks of trust and cooperation within a community, can facilitate political participation by providing resources, information, and opportunities for collective action

Types of Political Participation

• Voting is the most common form of political participation, allowing citizens to select their representatives and express their preferences on candidates and issues
• Campaign activities include volunteering for a candidate, attending rallies, donating money, and displaying signs or bumper stickers to show support for a political cause
• Contacting public officials through letters, emails, phone calls, or in-person meetings is a way for citizens to express their views and influence policy decisions
• Protest activities, such as demonstrations, marches, boycotts, and civil disobedience, are forms of unconventional participation used to challenge government policies or social norms
• Joining interest groups or political parties allows citizens to pool their resources and influence to advocate for specific policies or ideologies
• Community involvement, such as participating in neighborhood associations, school boards, or local government meetings, enables citizens to address issues at the grassroots level
• Online activism, including social media campaigns, online petitions, and digital mobilization, has become an increasingly important form of political participation in the digital age
• Consumer activism involves using purchasing power to support or boycott companies based on their political or social stances, as a form of political expression

Measuring Political Engagement

• Voter turnout rates, calculated as the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election, provide a basic measure of political participation and civic engagement
• Survey research, such as public opinion polls and academic studies, can assess political attitudes, knowledge, and behavior by asking citizens directly about their political views and activities
• Membership in political parties, interest groups, and civil society organizations can indicate the level of political mobilization and the strength of associational life in a society
• Campaign contributions and political spending can be tracked to measure the influence of money in politics and the intensity of political competition
• Media coverage and social media metrics, such as the volume and sentiment of political discussions online, can provide insights into the salience of political issues and the level of public engagement
• Protest event data, collected through media reports or direct observation, can quantify the frequency, size, and impact of unconventional forms of political participation
• Voter registration rates can be used to assess the accessibility and inclusiveness of the political system, particularly for marginalized or underrepresented groups
• Political efficacy scales, which measure individuals' sense of their own political competence and the responsiveness of the political system, can provide a subjective indicator of political engagement

Case Studies and Comparisons

• The United States is often characterized as having a participant political culture, with high levels of electoral competition, interest group activity, and a strong tradition of individual liberty and civic engagement
• Japan's political culture has been described as a mix of subject and participant orientations, with a strong emphasis on consensus, hierarchy, and respect for authority, while also featuring competitive elections and an active civil society
• Russia's political culture under Vladimir Putin has been characterized as increasingly authoritarian, with centralized power, limited political opposition, and a focus on nationalism and traditional values
• India's political culture reflects its diverse religious, linguistic, and regional identities, with a vibrant electoral democracy coexisting with deep social inequalities and political fragmentation
• The United Kingdom's political culture emphasizes parliamentary sovereignty, a strong party system, and a tradition of civil liberties, while also grappling with issues of national identity and European integration
• Nigeria's political culture is shaped by its ethnic and religious diversity, a history of military rule and corruption, and the challenges of managing resource wealth and regional tensions
• Brazil's political culture has been marked by a legacy of authoritarianism, clientelism, and social inequality, while also featuring a robust civil society, participatory budgeting initiatives, and a growing middle class
• The European Union represents an experiment in supranational political culture, with efforts to foster a shared European identity and democratic values across its member states, while navigating national differences and skepticism

Contemporary Issues and Trends

• The rise of populist and anti-establishment movements in many countries has challenged traditional political institutions and norms, often fueled by economic grievances, cultural anxieties, and a rejection of globalization
• The increasing polarization of political discourse, particularly in the United States and other Western democracies, has led to a decline in political trust, compromise, and the ability to address pressing policy challenges
• The role of social media in shaping political attitudes and behavior has come under scrutiny, with concerns about echo chambers, misinformation, and foreign interference in elections
• The COVID-19 pandemic has tested the resilience of political systems and cultures around the world, with debates over the balance between public health, individual freedoms, and economic recovery
• The Black Lives Matter movement and other protests against racial injustice have sparked a global conversation about systemic racism, police brutality, and the need for political and social reform
• The growing urgency of climate change has mobilized new forms of political participation, particularly among younger generations, with demands for bold action to address environmental sustainability and justice
• The decline of traditional political parties and the rise of issue-based movements and independent candidates have fragmented the political landscape in many countries, making it harder to build stable governing coalitions
• The ongoing struggle for gender equality in politics, from the underrepresentation of women in elected office to the persistence of sexual harassment and discrimination, remains a critical challenge for political cultures around the world